4 


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THE 

PAINTERS'  ENCYCLOPEDIA. 

CONTAINING 

DEFINITIONS  OF  ALL  IMPORTANT  WORDS 

IN  THE  ART  OF 

PLAIN  AND  ARTISTIC  PAINTING, 

WITH  DETAILS  OF  PRACTICE  IN 

COACH,  CARRIAGE,  RAILWAY  CAR,  HOUSE,  SIGN  AND 
ORNAMENTAL  PAINTING, 

INCLUDING 

GRAINING,  MARBLING,  STAINING,  VARNISHING,  POLISH- 
ING, LETTERING,  STENCILING,  GILDING,  BRONZING, 

AND  VALUABLE  HINTS  AND  HELPS  IN 

SCENE  PAINTING,  PORCELAIN  PAINTING,  PLAIN 
PAINTING,  DISTEMPER  PAINTING, 

AND  ALL  WORK  IN  WHICH  A  BRUSH,  PENCIL  OR  PALETTE  IS  USED. 

EL  A  BORA  TEL  V  I L  LUSTRA  TED. 


BY 

FRANKLIN  B.  GARDNER, 

Author  ofiiThe  Complete  Carriage  and  Wagon  Painter  "  "Everybody's  Paint 
Book"  "How  to  Paint,    etc.,  etc.,  etc. 


NEW  YORK: 

M.  T.  RICHARDSON,  Publisher. 
1887. 


Copyrighted,  1887, 
By  M.  T.  RICHARDSON. 


GIBB  BROS., 
ELECTRIC  POWER  PRINTERS, 
57  ROSE  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 

THE  J  PAUL  GETTY  CEN  ( cR 
LIBRARY 


PREFACE. 


The  general  character  of  this  book  is  indicated  by  its 
title.  The  several  topics  are  treated  with  a  view  to 
technically  instruct  those  who  desire  to  make  a  study 
of  the  art  of  painting-  as  practised  in  the  paint-shops 
and  studios  of  the  United  States. 

Every  effort  has  been  made  to  ensure  scientific 
accuracy  in  all  the  statements  made.  The  knowledge 
acquired  during-  a  close  connection  with  the  business 
for  thirty-five  years  is  embodied  in  these  pages.  The 
employment  of  engravings,  wherever  it  was  deemed 
necessary  to  more  fully  explain  the  letter-press,  will 
be  found  to  add  greatly  to  the  value  of  the  work  as  an 
instructor,  while  the  many  extended  articles,  mostly 
original,  will,  it  is  believed,  be  interesting  even  to 
those  who  read  only  for  pleasure,  or  for  information  on 
general  topics. 

Care  has  been  taken  to  make  the  book  one  easy  of 
consultation,  virtually,  a  Dictionary  in  one  alphabet, 
readily  distinguishable  from  a  collection  of  exhaustive 
treatises,  and  as  such  it  is  submitted  by 


THE  AUTHOR. 


THE 


Painters'  Encyclopedia. 


A  is  the  first  letter  in  almost  all  alphabets,  excepting-, 
perhaps,  the  Ethiopian  where  it  takes  the  thir- 
teenth place.  The  Roman  alphabet  of  which  the 
letter  press  of  this  book  consists,  forms  the  base 
of  all  other  alphabets  used  to  express  the  English 
language.  In  fact  there  are  but  two  alphabets 
in  common  use,  namely :  the  Gothic  and  the  Ro- 
man. 

For  many  years  the  formation  of  the  letters  of 
the  alphabet,  based  as  they  were  upon  the  Roman, 
remained  unchanged  by  sign  writers  and  en- 
gravers ;  that  is,  the  general  features  of  a  letter, 
whether  Roman,  Gothic,  Antique  or  one  of  varie- 
ties of  ornamental  letters,  would  be  used  and  no 
endeavors  be  made  to  add  to  or  detract  there- 
from ;  but  of  late  years  there  seems  to  be  no  end 
to  the  shapes  given  to  letters,  and  in  many  cases 
this  is  so  extravagantly  carried  on,  that  the  origi- 
nal form  of  the  letter  is  lost,  and  one  is  obliged 
to  study  a  line  well  before  the  words  can  be  read. 
This  is  due,  principally  to  type  founders  and  letter 
cutters,  who,  in  order  to  increase  their  sales  in- 
vent "new  styles,"  for  which  a  demand  is  soon 


% 


6  ABSORBENT  GROUND. 

created,  as  is  the  custom  of  the  hatter,  with  his 
spring1  and  summer  styles.    (See  Lettering.) 

Absorbent  Ground. — A  term  given  by  painters  to 
a  water-color  mixture,  which  is  laid  upon  canvas 
or  wood,  which  at  once  imbibes  the  oil  of  sub- 
sequent coats  of  oil  paint,  leaving  the  colors  in 
which  the  design  is  made  dry  and  brilliant.  Art- 
ists who  work  on  silk  and  satin  grounds,  spread 
the  oil  from  their  tubes  upon  blotting  paper  to 
allow  the  oil  to  be  absorbed  then  mix  it  upon 
their  palette  with  spirits  of  turpentine. 

In  carriage  and  car  painting,  the  principal  aim 
is  to  make  the  foundation  as  non-absorptive  as 
possible,  so  that  the  oil  of  subsequent  coats  will 
remain  and  oxidize  with  pigment  as  it  was  ap- 
plied. 

Accidental  Colors. — Those  colors  which  depend  on 
the  affections  of  the  eye.  Thus,  if  we  look  for 
some  time  upon  a  piece  of  yellow  cloth,  and  sud- 
denly turn  the  eye  from  it,  we  will  see  the  color 
of  indigo ;  red  will  give  green,  and  so  on.  (See 
Complimentary  Colors.) 

Adulteration. — The  adulteration  of  pigments  and 
vehicles  for  paint  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent 
by  unprincipled  dealers,  and  great  care  should 
be  taken  to  purchase  only  from  reliable  trades- 
men, which,  though  not  a  certainty  against  adul- 
teration, will  at  least  lessen  the  chances  of 
imposition. 

White  lead  may  be  adulterated  with  barytes, 
the  bane  of  all  paints.  Lakes,  blues,  and  in  short 
all  the  stock  of  the  paint  shop  may  be  tampered 
with.  It  is  not  supposed  that  every  painter  is 
chemist  enough  to  detect  the  true  from  the  false, 


0 


ADULTERATION  o  7 

but  where  there  is  doubt  he  may  try  the  follow- 
ing-: 

To  know  when  white  lead  is  pure,  rub  a  little  of 
it  in  the  fingers  and  throw  it  on  a  piece  of  live 
charcoal ;  if  pure  the  whole  of  it  will  turn  a  yellow- 
ish hue,  and  in  a  few  minutes  will  take  the  form  of 
metallic  globules ;  but  if  adulterated  there  will  be 
a  residue  of  white  earthy  matter. 

To  detect  vermilion,  place  a  little  on  a  red-hot 
iron,  if  pure  it  will  evaporate  entirely  ;  if  not,  there 
will  be  a  residue  of  white  earthy  matter. 

Chrome  yellow  may  be  tested  by  pouring  a  little 
nitric  acid  upon  it ;  if  it  effervesces,  it  is  adulter- 
ated ;  if  it  does  not,  it  is  pure. 

Genuine  indigo  will  burn. 

Ultramarine  is  not  affected  by  nitric  acid  when 
adulterated ;  but  if  pure  it  will  lose  its  color  com- 
pletely. 

The  cost  of  genuine  white  lead  and  other  colors 
can  readily  be  obtained  by  consulting  any  of  the 
numerous  trade  journals.  The  colors  desired  being 
determined,  one  can  form  an  approximate  esti- 
mate of  what  they  should  cost  simply  ground  in 
pure  linseed  oil,  and  any  offer  of  "pure  paint"  at  a 
price  which  the  cost  for  raw  material  precludes 
should  be  carefully  avoided.  Pay  a  fair  price,  and 
then  insist  upon  a  pure  article. 

While  it  is  of  great  importance  that  the  pigments 
should  be  as  good  and  pure  as  possible,  it  is  even 
of  greater  importance  that  what  goes  into  them 
should  be  of  the  best  material  and  make.  The  best 
of  paints  may,  and  will,  prematurely  perish  if  poor 
japan  or  oil  is  used.  A  poor  paint  will  wear  much 
longer  with  good  japan  and  oil,  than  a  good  paint 
with  poor  japan  and  oil.    The  oil  and  gum  used 


s 


AERIAL  PERSPECTIVE. 


in  making-  japans  and  varnishes  is  the  "glue" 
which  holds  the  particles  of  paint  together,  and  in 
proportion  as  these  are  well  made,  and  of  a  good 
material  the  paint  retains  its  tenacity  a  longer  or 
shorter  time. 

In  keeping  with  the  flood  of  poor  paints  put  upon 
the  market  by  grinders,  the  varnish  men  iiave 
been  called  upon  for  cheap  japans  and  liquid  driers, 
until  it  has  come  to  pass  that  these  so-called  driers 
can  be  bought  at  a  price  below  the  actual  cost  of 
raw  linseed  oil  or  turpentine,  the  price  of  gum  not 
considered.  Any  painter  or  consumer  of  paints 
that  stops  to  consider  a  moment  must  know  that  in- 
ferior materials  are  being  used,  and  the  inference 
is  that  they  are  rosin  and  benzine. 
Aerial  Perspective. — An  optical  term  referring-  to 
color  in  the  same  manner  as  the  term  Linear  Per- 
spective refers  to  form.  Distance  diminishes  the 
size  of  an  object,  and  distorts  its  form  so  far  as 
all  those  lines  which  run  in  the  direction  of  vision 
seem  to  converge  and  finally  to  meet.  Thus  the 
two  rows  of  houses  forming  an  avenue  are  suffi- 
cient to  make  the  effect  of  perspective  strikingly 
felt,  as  they  seem  to  meet  each  other  in  some 
distant  point,  though  in  reality  they  are  per- 
fectly parallel.  Distance  also  weakens  the  color 
of  an  object,  and  under  certain  circumstances  it 
completely  changes  it.  Thus  the  green  forest  and 
the  gray  rocks  become,  at  a  certain  distance,  and 
under  certain  circumstances,  blue,  perspective, 
linear  and  aerial,  and  is  therefore  the  means  by 
which  painters  represent  distance.  Linear  per- 
spective (q.  v.)  was  first  fully  understood  and  ap- 
plied by  Michael  Angelo  in  1475  ;  Aerial  perspec- 
tive by  Claude  Lorain  in  1600. 


AMARANDA  LAKE. 


0 


Affinity. — A  chemical  term  used  to  denote  a  kind  of 
attraction  by  which  the  particles  of  different  bodies 
unite.  Thus,  when  an  acid  and  an  alkali  combine, 
a  new  substance  is  formed  called  a  salt,  entirely 
different  in  its  chemical  properties  from  either  an 
acid  or  an  alkali. 

When  the  ingredients  composing-  paint  are  put 
together  there  is  a  certain  species  of  affinity  ex- 
isting, but  it  is  not  the  same  affinity  known  to  the 
chemist.  Again  there  is  said  to  be  a  certain 
quality  of  affinity  between  coats  of  varnish  or 
paint  applied  one  over  the  other,  and  where  this 
does  not  exist  there  will  be  chipping  or  flaking  of 
one  or  more  of  the  coatings,  or  the  whole  paint 
structure  may  leave  the  surface  over  which  it  was 
spread. 

Alcohol. — Highly  rectified  spirit  extracted  by  simple 
distillation  from  various  vegetable  juices  and  in- 
fusions of  a  saccharine  nature,  which  have  under- 
gone vinous  fermentation.  Alcohol  is  the  solvent 
used  in  making  spirit  varnishes,  although  of  late 
years  a  similar  substance  called  wood  naphtha  or 
wood  alcohol  has  in  many  cases  superseded  the 
pure  alcohol. 

All-over  Patterns. — A  design  of  free  growth,  re- 
peating horizontally  and  vertically. 

Aluminium  Leaf. — Thin  sheets  of  metal  used  in 
place  of  silver  leaf,  made  from  aluminium,  a  metal 
which  resists  oxidation  in  a  great  degree.  This  is 
called  by  some  "  nickel  leaf",  it  is  inexpensive  and 
durable. 

Amaranda  Lake. — A  color  inclining  to  purple,  de- 
riving its  name  from  amaranth,  a  purple  flower 
which  when  plucked  from  its  stem  is  a  long  time 


10 


AMARANTH. 


fading  or  withering-.  This  lake  is  said  to  he  very 
durable,  but  it  is  more  of  an  artist's  color  than 
for  general  work. 

Amaranth. — A  color  inclining  to  purple.  To  make 
it,  tint  white  with  blue  and  red,  then  sadden  with 
black. 

Amassette.— An  instrument  similar  in  shape  to  a 
palette-knife  (q.v.)  made  of  horn  or  ivory  and  used 
by  French  painters  for  mixing  colors. 

Amber. — A  fossil  resin  of  trees  belonging  to  an  order 
now  extinct.  It  is  found  in  various  colors,  but 
chiefly  in  orange  and  yellow  tints. 

Amber  Varnish. — A  varnish  made  with  amber  as 
follows :  Having  finely  pulverized  amber,  put 
eight  ounces  in  a  vessel  containing  half  a  pint  of 
best  spirits  of  turpentine,  place  the  vessel  over  a 
fire  till  the  amber  is  melted  ;  then  add  two  ounces 
of  powdered  shellac  and  heat  again.  Keep  stir- 
ring till  the  gum  is  melted,  then  add  to  the  whole 
an  ounce  of  cold-drawn  linseed  oil.  Stir  all  well 
together,  strain  and  it  is  fit  for  use. 

Amber  Varnish. — Take  of  amber  gum,  one  pound  ; 
boiled  oil  (pale),  1 2  ounces ;  turpentine,  one  pint. 
First,  put  the  amber  in  an  iron  vessel  and  heat  it 
until  semi-liquid  ;  then  add  the  oil,  mix  thorough- 
ly, remove  from  the  fire  and  when  cooled  a  little, 
put  in  the  turpentine.  This  forms  an  excellent  cov- 
ering for  uncolored  wood,  as  holly  or  pine,  being 
very  pale  in  color  and  extremely  hard  when  dry. 

Amber  Varnish  (Black). — Amber  gum,  one  pound ; 
boiled  oil,  one-half  pint ;  asphaltum,  8  ounces  ;  tur- 
pentine, one  pint.  Melt  the  gum  as  before  directed, 
then  add  the  asphaltum  previously  dissolved  in 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


11 


the  oil,  heat  all  very  hot,  then  remove  from  the 
fire  and  allow  to  cool  a  little,  when  the  turps  may 
be  added.  Black  resin  is  used  in  place  of  the  as- 
phaltum  by  some  manufacturers,  but  the  asphal- 
tum  is  best. 

Amber  Varnish  (Pale.) — Take  five  pounds  of  the 
pale  transparent  gum,  melt  it  and  add  hot  clari- 
fied linseed  oil,  two  gallons,  boil  until  it  strings — 
like  boiling  molasses — then  add  four  gallons  of 
turpentine.  Good  drying  oil  may  be  used,  or 
driers  may  be  added  if  desired  to  dry  quickly. 

Amber  Varnish  (Pale). — Melt  8  ounces  of  gum, 
and  add  one-half  gallon  of  boiled  oil,  then  dilute 
with  turpentine  as  above  mentioned. 

American  Method  of  Carriage  Painting.— The 

name  given  to  a  system  of  painting  vehicles  of 
any  kind  wherein  certain  prepared  liquids  and 
paints  are  used,  and  certain  means  adopted  for 
doing  the  work,  by  which  economy,  dispatch,  and 
a  uniform  excellent  quality  of  results  are  attained. 
The  system  of  painting,  as  here  laid  down,  has 
received  the  hearty  commendation  and  adoption 
of  many  of  the  leading  carriage  and  car-builders 
of  both  this  country  and  Europe,  and  we  do  not 
hesitate  to  devote  a  large  amount  of  space  to 
present  our  readers  with  every  detail ;  giving  in 
most  part  the  directions  laid  down  by  the  Messrs. 
Valentine  &  Company,  who  manufacture  the  lead- 
ing articles  used  in  this  method.  Supplemented 
with  copious  notations  by  the  author  of  this 
work. 

1.  The  Priming. — The  first  or  priming  coat  upon 
wood  or  iron,  is  of  great  importance,  for  on  the 
durability  of  the  foundation,  the  durability  of 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


the  superstructure  mainly  depends.  There  are 
several  methods  employed  for  priming  work,  for 
which  various  advantages  are  claimed.  Some 
think  the  old  Engish  method  the  best — consisting 
of  boiled  oil  and  white  lead  with  a  little  "  patent 
dryer  " — but  few  there  are  who  now  depend  upon 
that  as  a  priming,  owing  to  the  widespread  denun- 
ciation of  boiled  oil  in  the  trade  journals.  There 
are  but  few  carriage-builders  who  could  afford  to 
follow  the  method  of  painting  as  done  by  such 
men  as  Thomas  Gocldard,  of  Boston,  a  few  years 
ago.  Customers  nowadays  are  unwilling  to  wait 
from  six  months  to  a  year  for  the  painting  of 
their  carriage,  and  still  less  willing  to  pay  the 
price  that  must  follow  such  a  protracted  piece  of 
work. 

Carriages  are  now  painted  in  first-class  style 
and  manner  in  from  fourteen  to  twenty  days. 
The  principal  reason  for  this,  is  the  use  of  a  prim- 
ing, which  obviates  the  application  of  several 
coats  of  white  lead  paint,  yet  forms  a  solid  but 
elastic  foundation.  Priming  must  possess  the 
following  qualities  in  order  to  insure  good  and 
durable  work :  Penetrativeness,  that  it  may 
enter  the  pores  of  the  wood  and  help  to  fill  them  ; 
adhesiveness,  that  it  will  remain  firm  in  the 
pores,  and  not  chip  or  flake  and  fly  off ;  com- 
pactness, that  it  may  form  sufficient  body  to  hold 
up  the  subsequent  coats,  and  prevent  the  absorp- 
tion of  moisture  ;  elasticity  or  toughness,  to  pre- 
vent the  chipping,  peeling  or  flaking  of  after-coats  ; 
and  uniform  consistency,  that  all  parts  may  be 
done  in  an  easy  and  uniform  manner.  Of  the 
many  primings  now  in  use  by  the  leading  carriage 
painters  of  this  country  are  permanent  wood 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


13 


filling  (of  which  more  anon),  and  white  lead  and 
raw  oil. 

It  is  claimed,  on  the  one  hand,  that  paint,  no 
matter  what  the  composition  maybe,  simply  forms 
a  coating-  on  the  surface  of  wood  or  iron,  and  pro- 
tects only  so  long  as  it  remains  uninjured,  which 
period  of  time  would  be  shortened  were  it  not  for 
the  varnish  coats  which  protect  the  paint.  Now, 
the  oil  absorbed  from  the  point  is  trifling  in  com- 
parision  with  the  amount  required  to  fill  the  pore, 
and  prevent  further  absorption.  Beside  this,  the 
volatility  of  turpentine  and  oil,  after  they  have 
entered  the  pores,  causes  them  to  evaporate,  to 
some  extent,  and  to  leave,  under  the  coating  of 
paint,  empty  and  hungry  pores,  which  are  so  often 
the  cause  of  "chipping"  and  "flaking";  ' 'striking 
in"  or  "loss  of  luster"  in  the  varnish  coats,  owing, 
without  doubt,  to  the  absorption  of  the  oil  from 
subsequent  coats  by  this  porous  under-ground. 

2.  Linseed  Oil  as  a  Primer. — Linseed  oil,  although 
classed  among  the  fat  oils,  possesses  the  quality 
of  penetration  to  a  very  great  extent ;  indeed  too 
much  so,  to  have  much  value  as  a  priming  when 
used  alone.  It  has  been  found  that  when  the  outer 
surface  of  such  a  priming  has  thickened,  and  be- 
come partially  dry,  by  the  absorption  of  oxygen, 
the  under  part  is  still  soft,  and  is  sucked  more  or 
less  into  the  pores  of  the  wood ;  but  having  no 
great  body  or  filling  qualities,  it  does  not  perma- 
nently stop  them.  It  is  evident  that  the  presence 
of  turpentine  would  not  help  to  remedy  this  defect 
on  the  part  of  the  oil,  but  would  only  increase  it. 

3.  The  Question  of  Time. — As  we  have  before  men- 
tioned, the  question  of  time  is  one  of  great  impor- 


14 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


tance  nowadays.  Now,  the  method  of  filling-  the 
pores  of  the  wood  with  numerous  coats  of  white 
lead  and  oil  paint,  will  no  doubt  produce  durability, 
provided  that  proper  care  is  taken,  and  plenty  of 
time  given  for  each  coat  to  dry  thoroughly  before 
the  next  is  applied.  But  to  do  this  is  difficult 
where  the  work  is  at  all  done  in  a  hurry;  and  if  one 
coat  is  imperfectly  dried  or  preceded  or  followed 
by  coats  of  varying  elasticity,  there  is  liable  to  be 
trouble. 

This  demand  for  speedy  work,  coupled  with  the 
known  difficulty  of  turning  out  a  quick  job  in  white 
lead  priming  and  filling  which  should  be  durable, 
was  the  means  of  calling  out  the  modern  method 
of  carriage  painting,  known  as  the  "  Piotrowski 
method,"  after  the  inventor  of  the  Priming. 
Walerian  Piotrowski ;  and  afterwards  christened 
by  the  author  of  this  book  u  The  American  Method 
of  Carriage  Painting."  Which  we  will  now 
briefly  describe. 
4.  Priming  Carriage  and  Ca^  Bodies. — Perma- 
nent Wood  Filling,  the  universal  priming,  is  sup- 
plied by  the  manufacturers,  Messrs.  Valentine 
&  Company  of  New  York,  in  proper  condition  for 
immediate  use.  It  is  a  liquid  of  about  the  same 
consistency  as  varnish,  in  two  grades  of  color, 
"light"  and  "dark";  the  former  being  almost 
colorless  is  used,  principally,  for  work  which  is  to 
be  painted  in  light  colors  ;  the  latter  being  of  a 
black-walnut  color  is  used  on  any  work  where 
color  is  no  object.  This  is  excellent  for  staining 
pine  and  other  soft  woods  to  imitate  hard  wood. 
The  general  character  of  the  two  are  the  same,  the 
only  difference  being  in  the  color.  There  should 
be  nothing  added  to  the  P.  W.  F.  but,  if  it  appears 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


15 


too  thick,  in  case  of  very  cold  weather,  it  may  be 
turned  into  a  tin  vessel  and  tv armed  in  a  kettle  of 
hot  water.  When  the  body  is  completed  by  the 
wood-worker,  the  painter  gives  it  a  thorough  dust- 
ing* inside  and  out,  and  proceeds  to  "prime  it." 
Pouring  from  the  can  a  small  quantity  of  P.  W.  F. 
(it  does  not  require  much  to  coat  a  body,  as  one 
gallon  will,  if  rightly  used,  go  over  a  surface  of 
from  800  to  1000  square  feet  of  whitewood  or  pine), 
with  an  ordinary  paint  brush — perfectly  clean,  or 
one  kept  for  the  purpose,  and  not  used  for  paint, 
he  coats  over  a  portion  of  the  body,  say  :  the  back, 
or  one  side,  taking-  no  great  pains  to  spread  it 
evenly,  he  may  daub  it  on,  then,  immediately  wipe 
over  and  rub  in  every  part  with  rags  (cheap 
calico  or  muslin  torn  in  pieces).  This  rubbing 
with  rags  spreads  the  priming-  evenly,  and  forces 
it  into  the  pores.  Go  on  in  this  manner  until  the 
whole  is  done,  over  wood  and  iron  alike,  leaving- 
no  surface  coat  as  of  paint  or  varnish,  the  hand 
should  scarcely  be  soiled  or  greased  if  passed  over 
a  finished  portion  of  the  work.  The  canvassed 
parts  inside,  if  any,  may  be  painted  with  slush 
paint,  for  they  would  absorb  a  great  amount  of 
P.  W.  F.  with  no  corresponding  benefit.  It  can- 
not be  too  strongly  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the 
painter  desiring-  to  make  a  successful  use  of  the 
P.  W.  F.,  that  it  must  be  put  on  sparingly  and  be 
ivell  imped  or  rubbed  into  all  parts  of  the  tvork, 
and  that  only  one  coat  should  be  applied. 

The  body  should  now  be  set  aside  to  dry,  and 
forty-eight  hours  should  be  given,  unless  the 
weather  is  favorable,  when  the  time  may  be  short- 
ened to  36,  and  even  to  24  hours  without  detri- 
ment.    There  will  be  a  thin  film  covering  the 


16 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


hard  parts  of  the  wood,  and  the  iron  work,  and 
the  P.  W.  F.  being  composed  principally  of  oil  and 
a  gummy  or  filling-  substance  will  have  entered 
the  pores  and  sealed  them  against  the  entrance 
of  dampness  or  the  liquids  from  subsequent  coats 
of  paint. 

5.  Priming  the  Wheels  and  Under  Parts. — When 
the  wheels,  beds,  bars,  etc.,  are  finished  by  the 
wheelwright,  and  before  the  grain  of  the  wood  is 
raised  by  the  atmosphere,  a  coat  of  P.  W.  F.  is 
put  on  over  every  part  in  the  same  manner  as  the 
body,  wiping  it  well  with  rags ;  being  careful  to 
coat  the  bottom  of  bars,  tread  of  wheels,  etc.,  for 
this  material  is  a  bar  to  all  dampness,  and  will 
thus  render  the  work  more  durable.  This  pre- 
liminary coat  is  not  properly  the  priming,  for  it 
is  put  on  to  prevent  the  grain  of  the  wood  from 
absorbing  oil  and  dirt  from  the  smith's  hands,  and 
to  prevent  the  rims  or  felloes  from  swelling  with 
the  water  used  in  putting  on  the  tires.  When 
the  ironing  is  completed,  every  part  of  the  wood 
is  sandpapered  and  filed  down  until  nothing  but 
clean  wood  and  iron  are  seen,  and  every  trace  of 
P.  W.  F.  is  removed  from  the  surface — for  the 
preliminary  coat  has  fulfilled  its  mission. 

The  preparation  of  the  gears  at  this  stage,  is 
the  main  operation,  for  if  they  are  well  done,  but 
little  labor  remains  to  be  accomplished.  The 
priming  is  now  in  order,  and  going  over  every 
part  with  P.  W.  F.  in  the  same  manner  as  at 
first,  this  is  soon  ready  for  standing  aside  to  dry. 
The  wood  pores  are  sealed  up,  the  surface  of  the 
wood  has  a  thin  film  covering  it  as  also  the  iron- 
work, and  a  more  tenacious  coating  is  not  easily 
found.    The  time  employed  so  far  upon  the  gears 


AMERICAN  METHOD.  IT 

has  been  trifling-,  compared  to  the  old-fashioned 
method  of  filling1  up  with  with  white  lead  and  oil, 
which  we  will  now  describe  : 
6.  White  Lead  Priming.— White  lead,  the  base  or 
foundation,  should  be  pure,  but  dealers  have 
many  means  of  adulterating  it  with  sulphate  of 
baryta,  or  barytes  (a  native  ore),  gypsum,  or 
plaster-of-paris  and  carbonate  of  lime,  or  common 
chalk,  all  of  which  are  detrimental.  Linseed  oil, 
the  purest  raw  oil,  also,  should  be  used,  but  this 
is  often  adulterated  with  menhaden  (fish)  oil,  or 
cotton-seed  oil,  and  who  can  tell  when  the 
materials  he  uses  are  pure  ?  Having"  secured 
what  is  supposed  to  be  pure — and  that  from  a 
well-known  responsible  maker  we  will  suppose  to 
be,  the  next  requisite  is  pure  black,  in  order  to 
form  a  gray  or  lead  color.  With  these  ingredients 
the  priming  is  formed.  The  white  lead  is  beat 
up  with  the  raw  oil  until  of  a  paint-like  consist- 
ency, then  a  little  of  the  black  is  added  to  form  a 
clean  lead  color.  Some  add  driers,  such  as  Brown 
Japan  or  Japan  Gold  size,  but  many  prefer  to  use 
none  whatever.  The  priming-  thus  made  is  now 
spread  on  the  wood,  and  with  a  self-satisfactory 
air  the  painter  runs  the  job  out  on  the  drying 
shed  or  other  convenient  place  to  dry.  The  oil  of 
the  priming-  gradually  leaves  the  pigments — white 
lead  and  black — and  seeks  the  interior  of  the 
wood,  sucked  in,  as  it  were,  by  capillary  attrac- 
tion, and  the  pigments  are  thus  virtually  strained 
and  left  upon  the  surface  in  a  semi-dry  porous 
state — while  the  oil  that  entered  the  wood,  not 
being-  a  gummy  or  filling  substance,  stains  the 
interior  of  each  little  pore  only — so  much  for 
the  priming  !    Next,  a  coat  of  white  lead  and  oil 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


of  similar  consistency  is  put  over  it.  The  oil  from 
this  coat  is  drank  in  by  the  porous  pigments, 
through  which  it  passes  and  spreads  itself  over 
the  stain  which  the  first  coat  gave  to  the  pores, 
and  the  second  coat  pigments  are  strained  and 
left  porous,  so  on  until  possibly  (if  a  good  job  is 
to  be  made),  five  coats  of  "lead  color  "  is  given  ; 
by  which  time  the  pores  may  have  become  filled 
by  the  successive  layers  of  oil,  and  the  pigment  on 
the  surface  too,  is  finally  cemented  together  or 
partially  so.  This  is  called  the  foundation,  and 
it  was  the  only  known  way  to  paint  a  carriage 
for  many  years. 

The  time  consumed  was  enormous  to  our  modern 
views  ;  weeks  were  allowed  the  coatings  to  dry, 
days  were  passed  in  sandpapering,  and  finally, 
in  order  to  meet  the  demand  for  quicker  work, 
the  number  of  coats  were  lessened  with  a  corres- 
ponding decrease  in  durability,  for  no  matter 
what  is  put  upon  the  surface,  if  of  a  liquid  nature, 
the  wood  will  absord  it,  and  unless  it  has  power 
to  close  those  hungry  pores,  absorption  will  go  on. 

Anti- Absorption  is  the  key-note  of  the  Amer- 
ican method  of  painting. 

Kough-Stuff. — The  leveling  or  rough-stuff  coats 
consist  of  a  coarse  mineral  paint,  designed  to  level 
down  or  fill  up  all  imperfections  in  the  surface  of 
the  carriage  body  (it  is  not  used  on  gears), 
such  as  plane  and  file  marks,  brad  holes,  etc. 

The  pigment  is  mixed  with  oil,  japan  varnish 
and  turpentine,  and  although  the  painter  may 
have  a  good  recipe  for  this  paint,  and  may  mix  it 
himself,  he  cannot  rely  upon  getting  exactly  the 
same  amount  of  elasticity  at  one  time  as  at 
another  time,  if  mixed  in  small  quantities.  There- 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


19 


fore  the  ready-prepared  paint,  mixed  from  a 
formula,  which  experience  and  careful  tests  have 
proved  best,  and  mixed  in  large  quantities  by 
weight  and  measure  is  by  far  the  surest  and 
safest  to  use.  Valentine  &  Company's  ground 
rough-stuff  is  thus  prepared,  and  it  will  also  har- 
monize and  assimilate  with  the  priming-  of  P.  W.  F. 
best,  for  it  is  mixed  with  the  same  grade  and  make 
of  linseed  oil.  The  P.  W.  F.  priming  on  the  body 
being  dry,  it  only  requires  a  good  dusting  when  it 
is  ready  for  the  rough-stuff.  This  for  the  first 
coat  should  have  a  very  little  raw  oil  added  to 
make  it  more  in  keeping  with  the  elastic  priming, 
and  it  must  not  be  spread  too  thick  ;  thick  coats 
are  apt  to  show  brush  marks,  and  brush  marks 
in  the  rough-stuff  will  show  in  the  finishing 
varnish.  Put  the  rough-stuff  on  smoothly  and 
set  the  body  away  for  48  hours  to  harden,  or,  if 
preferred,  when  24  hours  have  passed  the  largest 
holes  may  be  puttied  part  full,  then  give  the  other 
24  hours  for  drying. 

The  second,  third  and  fourth  coats  of  rough- 
stuff  may  be  put  on  one  day  apart,  then  a  thin 
coat  of  stain,  to  guide  the  workman  while  rubbing, 
say  some  yellow  ochre  or  other  cheap  pigment 
mixed  in  japan  and  turpentine,  may  be  added. 

Rough-stuff  will  always  give  better  satisfac- 
tion when  applied  in  a  medium  thin  coat.  It  is 
entirely  against  common-sense  to  plaster  on  a 
great  mass  of  this  paint,  with  the  desire  to  level 
the  work  quickly— better  by  far  to  put  on  extra 
coats. 

The  rubbing  of  the  rough-stuff,  being  a  purely 
mechanical  operation,  we  will  describe  under  its 
proper  head  "Rubbing". 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 

When  the  work  of  rubbing  is  completed,  the 
body  should  be  washed  clean,  and  well  dried  off 
with  a  chamois  skin;  then  set  aside  for  the  evapor- 
ation of  moisture  from  the  porous  paint. 

This  "drying  out"  is  of  vital  importance,  and 
should  never  be  neglected. 

Rough-stuff,  providing  it  is  good-rubbing  rough- 
stuff,  is  necessarily  porous,  no  matter  what  pig- 
ment or  vehicle  is  used,  and  a  portion  of  the  water 
used  in  rubbing  is  absorbed  by  it;  therefore  it  is 
essential,  after  the  moisture  has  all  been  evapor- 
ated, that  the  pores  be  closed,  in  order  that  the 
oil  of  subsequent  coats  may  not  be  absorbed  by 
them. 

It  is  the  aim  in  this  system  of  painting  to  form 
a  non-absorptive  surface,  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
if  the  P.  W.F.  closed  up  the  pores  of  the  wood,  it  will 
assuredty  close  up  the  pores  of  the  leveling  paint ; 
therefore,  a  coating  is  applied  to  the  rubbed  sur- 
face of  paint  in  the  same  manner  as  in  priming 
the  wood,  i.  e.,  wiping  off  all  that  will  readily  leave 
the  surface,  thus  rendering  the  paint  elastic,  yet 
proof  against  the  entrance  of  oil  from  all  subse- 
quent coats  of  color  or  of  varnish. 
.  Coloring  the  Body. — The  P.  W.  F.  put  on  over 
the  rough-stuff  having  been  allowed  from  24  to  48 
hours  for  drying;  the  coloring  is  now  in  order. 
The  surface  must  not  be  disturbed  by  sandpaper, 
but  a  simple  dusting  off  may  be  necessary.  It  is 
customary  with  some  painters  to  lay  on  a  ground 
coat  of  some  color  corresponding  with  the  color 
they  intend  to  make  the  job,  but  this  is  more  to 
economize  time  in  making  a  solid  job  and  to  save 
expensive  color,  and  with  the  exception  of  a  few 
extra  fine  or  transparent  colors,  which  are  inten- 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


21 


sified  or  made  more  brilliant  by  application  over 
particular  grounds,  the  color  proper  may  be  laid 
directly  on  the  prepared  surface. 

For  black,  either  lampblack  or  Valentine's 
Royal  or  coach  black  may  be  used  for  the  first 
coat,  having  sufficient  oil  in  the  mixture  to  cause 
an  egg-shell  gloss,  lay  it  on  with  a  camel's-hair 
brush  and  give,  say  12  hours  for  drying. 

To  better  illustrate  the  painting  of  a  body,  we 
will  take,  for  example,  a  job  to  be  painted  a  dark 
green,  which  is  a  standard  color  and  one  of  the 
most  durable  colors  used  in  carriage  work,  and 
carry  it  through  to  the  finish.  The  panels  only 
are  to  be  put  in  color,  the  remainder  to  be  black. 
Our  first  duty  is  to  prepare  a  ground  or  prepara- 
tion coat,  and  the  following"  will  be  found  a  good 
formula : 

^ .  To  produce  a  dark  green  ground,  mix  lamp- 
black and  chrome  yellow,  with  Crown  coach 
japan  and  turpentine  to  a  proper  consistency  for 
grinding-  in  the  mill — approximating-  as  nearly 
as  possible  the  desired  shade  of  green.  When 
ground  add  a  tablespoonful  of  raw  oil  to  a  pint 
of  paint,  and  when  well  stirred  together  test 
its  drying  qualities  by  spreading  a  little  on  the 
thumb-nail  and  blowing  upon  it  to  hasten  evapor- 
ation, if  it  dries  "dead"  add  a  few  drops  of  oil  or 
rubbing-  varnish,  or  if  too  glossy  add  turpentine 
until  an  egg-shell  gloss  is  obtained. 

This  ground  work  or  preparation  coat  should  be 
put  on  with  a  camel's-hair  brush  as  smoothly  as 
can  be,  allowing  no  laps  or  brush  marks  to  remain 
visible. 

The  black  portions  are  next  to  be  done,  and  this 
paint  may  be  mixed  in  the  same  manner  as  the 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


green — of  lampblack  or  ivory  black.  When  all  is 
coated  set  the  job  aside  to  dry  until  the  next  day, 
at  which  time  it  should  be  well  inspected  and  if 
any  scratches  or  indentations  are  found,  soft  dark 
putty  must  be  used  to  fill  them,  then  rub  over 
gently  with  No.  1  sandpaper,  partly  worn,  to  pre- 
pare it  for  the  color  proper — dark  green  and  ivory 
black.    The  dark  green  may  be  made  as  follows  : 

I£.  Pulverize,  on  the  stone,  some  Dutch  pink, 
and  mix  it  with  half  and  half  japan  gold  size  and 
turpentine  and  grind  it  fine.  Then  mix  in  the  same 
manner  some  Prussian  blue  and  grind  it  into  an- 
other cup.  Now,  little  by  little,  add  the  blue  to 
the  Dutch  pink,  stirring  it  constantly,  until  the 
desired  shade  of  green  is  obtained,  and  temper  the 
mixture  with  raw  oil  in  the  same  manner  as  ex- 
plained for  the  ground  coat.  Apply  with  camel's- 
hair  brush.  The  black  parts  may  now  receive 
another  coat  of  ivory  or  drop  black.  If  ready- 
mixed  colors  are  used,  instead  of  mixing  them  as 
above,  take  Valentine's  royal  green  for  the  green 
parts,  and  jet  black  for  the  black  portions,  tem- 
pering- them  as  described  with  oil. 

It  is  the  usual  custom  to  make  color-and-varnish 
by  adding  to  a  partly  filled  cup  of  varnish  a  little 
color ;  but  it  is  considered  best  by  some  of  the  first- 
class  painters  to  grind  the  dry  pigment  directly  in 
varnish,  and  thus  overcome  the  objection  to  the 
oil  and  turpentine  in  the  color-and- varnish.  How- 
ever, in  the  work  before  us,  we  desire  to  produce  a 
rich  or  deep  shade  of  green,  and  to  carry  out  the 
plan,  we  will  glaze  the  color,  instead  of  putting  on 
color-and-varnish,  in  its  ordinary  mixture.  Yel- 
low lake  possesses  the  power,  when  used  for  a 
glazing  over  green,  to  increase  the  intensity  or 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


23 


depth  of  the  color,  and  many  handsome  shades  are 
made  in  that  way.    It  may  be  mixed  as  follows  : 

I£ .  Pulverize  the  lumps  and  mix  it  in  hard-drying' 
body  varnish;  grind  fine,  then  add  a  very  little  of 
the  Dutch  pink  color.  Stir  well  and  apply  with 
badger-hair  varnish  brushes. 

The  black  parts  are  now  ready  for  color-and- 
varnish  and  we  desire — as  in  the  case  of  the 
panels— a  first-class  black  ;  so  instead  of  using 
ordinary  color-and-varnish,  we  will  employ  black 
japan  (which  see).  Three  coats  of  this  well  rubbed 
with  pulverized  pumice  between  each  coat,  will 
give  a  good,  jet-black  surface  for  finishing  over. 

The  glazed  panels  having  been  rubbed  lightly 
with  pumice-stone,  and  a  coat  of  hard  drying 
bod}'  varnish  given,  at  the  time  the  black  japan 
was  applied,  the  whole  is  now  ready  for  a  final 
rubbing  down  and  finishing  coat  of  wearing  body 
varnish. 

9.  The  Gears. — We  left  the  gears  with  the  priming 
of  P.  W.  F.,  and  after  24  hours  we  may  apply 
either  a  thin  coat  of  lampblack  color,  or  a  thin 
lead  color,  the  object  of  which  is  to  see  the  open 
grain  and  imperfection  so  that  putty  may  be 
used  to  plaster  over  and  fill  them.  The  surface 
of  the  P.  W.  F.  must  not  be  rubbed,  the  paint 
should  be  applied  as  smoothly  as  possible,  for  no 
great  amount  of  sandpapering  is  to  be  done. 
Putty  all  imperfections  after  the  paint  has  dried, 
which  will  be  perhaps  48  hours,  for  this  first  coat 
over  the  P.  W.  F.  should  be  a  little  more  oily 
than  is  necessary  in  any  other  coatings. 

When  the  putty  is  dry,  gently  rub  over  with 
fine  sandpaper,  but  don't  cut  through  the  paint. 
When  done,  dust  off,  apply  the  color  and  color- 


24 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


and-varnish,  as  usual,  moss  clown,  give  a  second 
coat  of  color-and-varnish,  rub  this  latter  with 
pumice-powder,  wash  off,  stripe,  and  give  a  coat 
of  clear  elastic  leveling-  varnish,  let  dry,  rub 
again  and  finish  with  elastic  gear  varnish. 

This  completes  the  work  of  the  American 
method,  and  we  believe  any  one  at  all  acquainted 
with  painting  will  readily  see  the  correctness  of 
our  theory,  regarding  absorption,  and  be  enabled 
by  our  description  of  how  the  work  is  done,  to 
give  it  practical  test  in  his  workshop.  "We  add 
on  opposite  page  a  synopsis  of  the  method  showing 
the  time  consumed  in  doing  a  piece  of  work. 

American  Vermilion.— A  pigment  made  from 
white  lead  and  bichromate  of  potash.  These  are 
boiled  together,  washed,  filtered,  pressed,  dried 
and  pulverized,  either  with  rollers  or  with  the 
hand.  It  must  not  be  rubbed  so  hard  as  to  break 
the  crystals,  or  it  will  lose  its  color  and  show  what 
it  really  is — orange  chrome.  American  vermil- 
ion is  greatly  inferior  to  that  known  as  English 
vermilion  (which  see),  but  for  ordinary  work  such 
as  wagons  and  trucks  it  answers  a  good  purpose. 
It  should  never  be  ground  in  the  paint-mill. 

Amethyst. — A  purple  or  violet  color  used  by  artists 
in  emblazoning  the  arms  of  English  nobility. 

Ammonia. — A  volatile  alkali,  which  is  a  deadly 
enemy  of  varnish.  It  is  an  important  chemical 
compound  in  the  form  of  a  transparent,  colorless 
and  pungent  gas.  The  name  was  probably  derived 
from  the  temple  of  Amnion  in  Libya,  Africa,  near 
which  the  chloride  of  ammonium  was  first  made 
from  the  soot  produced  by  burning  camels'  dung. 
It  is  now  obtained  as  a  by-product  in  thedistiJla- 


AMERICAN  METHOD. 


25 


SYNOPSIS 

OF  THE 

AMERICAN  METHOD  ON  BODIES. 


1st  day,  Apply  P.  W.  F.,  and  wipe  off,    For  drying  give  48  hours. 


od  " 

First  coat  of  rough-stuff  a  little  oily, 

48 

5th  " 

2d       "              "  ordinary, 

«< 

24 

tt 

6th  " 

3d       "              "  " 

24 

a 

7th  " 

4th  " 

<« 

24 

8th  " 

Stain  coat  over  rough-stuff 

« « 

24 

a 

9th  " 

Rub  down  with  pumice-stone. 

10th  " 

P.  F.  W.  rubbed  over  and  well  wiped  off, 

«« 

24 

tt 

12th  " 

1st  coat  of  color  or  lampblack.  - 

«< 

24 

n 

13th  " 

2d    "          "         ivory  black,  - 

a 

24 

a 

14th  » 

1st  coat  of  color-and-varnish  or  Black  Japan, 

tt 

48 

a 

16th  " 

2d    "  " 

48 

tt 

18th  *' 

3d  " 

a 

48 

a 

20th  " 

Finishing  coat  of  Wearing  Body  Varnish. 

18  days. 

ON  GEARS. 

1st  day,  P.  W.  F.  put  on  the  completed  gear  and 

wipe  off,  give 

48  hours. 

2d  " 

Putty  up  all  open-grained  places 

24 

4th  " 

Sandpaper,  putty,  and  put  on  P.W.F.  again, 

48 

1 1 

6th  " 

Apply  color  lampblack,  - 

tt 

24 

<  t 

7th  " 

Apply  color-and-varnish,  quite  strong,  - 

48 

tt 

9th  " 

Rub  and  give  second  coat  of  color-and- 

varnish,     -         -         -         -  - 

48 

a 

11th  " 

Rub  down,  stripe,  and  ornament, 

tt 

24 

it 

12th  " 

Give  coat  of  rubbing  varnish, 

a 

48 

1 1 

14th  " 

Finish  with  Elastic  Gear  Varnish. 

13  days. 

The  above  time  is  given  as  the  minimum  or  shortest  possible 
time  to  do  a  first-class  job,  but  as  the  painter  will  generally  have 
more  time  to  spare  upon  the  job,  he  may  divide  it,  giving  the 
extra  time  for  the  P.  W.  F.  and  the  varnish  coats  to  harden. 


AMMONIA. 


tion  of  bituminous  coal  in  making  gas,  and  from 
refuse  animal  matter  in  preparing  bone-black,  etc. 

A  solution  of  this  gas  in  water  is  used  in  medi- 
cine and  is  called  spirits  of  hartshorn,  or  liquid 
ammonia. 

This  pungent  alkali  exists  in  bituminous  coal, 
whence  it  is  thrown  off  in  form  of  gas ;  also  in 
animal  life,  whence  it  is  thrown  off  by  the  respir- 
atory organs ;  and  the  atmosphere  of  large  cities 
is  impregnated  with  it.  Spirits  of  ammonia  is 
used  by  the  painter  as  a  detergent  or  remover  of 
varnish  coats  on  carriages,  and  although  it  effect- 
ually destroys  the  surface  and  enables  the  work- 
man to  scrape  and  wash  off  the  varnish  or  paint, 
it  is  not  recommended  by  the  experienced  painter, 
except  for  common  work,  owing  to  the  liability  of 
injury  to  the  wood  and  consequent  trouble  in 
re-painting. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  among  carriage-makers 
that  the  largest  share  of  the  work  they  turn  out 
is  ruined  by  ammonia,  and  yet  it  seems  impossible 
for  them  to  educate  their  customers — carriage 
owners — up  to  that  point,  where  judgment  in  the 
housing  of  a  carriage  is  needed.  Stables  are  fitted 
up  with  a  view  to  prevent  the  ammonia  from  the 
horses  getting  into  the  carriage  house,  and  after 
all  their  care  in  this  respect — as  they  think — com- 
munication is  made  between  stable  and  carriage 
house  by  doors,  which  are  frequently  ajar.  The 
manure  is  in  some  cases  carted  through  the  room, 
and  we  have  known  of  cases  where  a  drain  from 
the  stable  carrying  off  the  liquid  excresences, 
passed  under  the  floor  of  the  carriage  house,  and, 
connecting  with  the  drain  from  the  washing  floor 
within,  sent  up  unrestrained  the  very  enemy  they 


AMMONIA. 


had  sought  to  exclude.  The  odor  of  ammonia  is 
very  strong-,  and  yet  there  may  he  a  sufficient 
quantity  in  the  air  to  affect  the  varnish,  hut  not 
sufficient  to  be  readily  discovered  by  the  smell. 
Livery  stables  are,  as  a  rule,  thoroughly  impreg- 
nated with  ammoniacal  gas,  and  here  it  is  that 
much  city  work  is  destroyed,  unthought  of.  The 
action  of  the  gas  is  said  to  be,  by  an  eminent 
chemist,  as  follows  :  The  gas  rises  and  having  an 
affinity  for  almost  everything,  settles  in  the  form 
of  a  powder  upon  each  mite  of  dust  floating  in  the 
atmosphere.  The  dust  settles  to  its  resting  place, 
possibly  some  part  of  a  well-painted  carriage,  and 
carries  with  it  the  ammonia,  which,  so  long  as  it 
remains  dry,  is  inactive,  but  so  soon  as  the  least 
dampness  or  moisture  strikes  it,  the  enemy  begins 
its  work  annihilating  the  life  of  the  varnish — oil. 
Thus  it  is  where  a  carriage  standing  in  a  poorly 
contrived  house,  and  used  daily  (with  frequent 
washing  or  run  out  in  damp  weather),  will  show 
the  effects  of  ammonia  much  quicker  than  another 
carriage  standing  unused  in  the  same  room.  The 
effects  of  ammonia  on  a  varnished  surface  is,  first, 
a  dullness  or  loss  of  lustre  upon  parts  exposed  to 
falling  dust  ;  those  parts,  such  as  the  slanting 
side  of  the  seat ;  the  sides  just  under  the  seat 
skirt,  etc.,  will  appear  as  bright  as  ever;  second, 
a  million  fine  lines  or  minute  cracks  running  in 
ever}^  direction,  next  a  dry  whitish  powder  which 
may  be  rubbed  off  with  the  hand,  and  finally  the 
utter  decay  of  varnish  and  possibly  paint.  Large 
cracks  are  seldom  caused  by  ammonia ,  it  is  a  grad- 
ual eating  away  of  the  oily  portion  of  the  material, 
leaving  the  gum  to  be  rubbed  or  washed  away. 
Various  plans  have  been  tried  to  arrest  the  ris- 


28 


ANGLE  FITCH. 


ing  of  ammoniacal  gas  in  stables,  one  of  which  be- 
ing- the  sprinkling  of  chloride  of  lime  around  the 
floor,  and  said  to  form  with  ammonia,  chloride  of 
ammonia  or  sal  ammoniac,  which  is  not  volatile, 
but  we  have  never  known  of  a  case  where  a  cure 
was  effected.  The  sure  way  is  to  keep  all  var- 
nished work,  such  as  carriages,  in  a  separate  build- 
ing, which  should  be  dry  and  moderately  warm, 
for  cold  will  affect  varnish  almost  as  badly  as  am- 
monia. 

Angle  Fitch.— A  small,  flat  brush 
with  the  hair  or  bristles  placed  at 
an  angle  with  the  handle,  used 
by  decorators  in  running  lines  or 
stripes  on  flat  surfaces. 

Anglo  Japanese  Work.  —  Orna- 
mented work  done  with  autumn 
leaves,  fastened  by  gum  or  cement 
to  a  painted  surface.   An  old  work- 
box  or  other  like  article  is  coated 
with  ivory  black,  ground  in  brown 
japan  to  dry  quickly,  after  which 
autumn  leaves  are  laid  on  and  AngliTfitch 
gummed  securely  in  the  order  de-  Brush. 
sired.    When  dry  the  whole  is  varnished  with 
several  coatings  of  carriage  rubbing  varnish. 

Aniline  Black  Varnish.— The  French  have  recent- 
ly brought  out  a  beautiful  black  varnish  made  as 
follows  :  Dissolve  7  drachms  of  antique  blue,  2 
drachms  fuchsine,  5  drachms  napthaline  yellow, 
in  one  quart  alcohol.  One  application  is  suffi- 
cient to  render  any  object  an  ebony  black. 

Aniline  Colors. — Aniline  was  discovered  in  1826  by 
Unverdorben,  as  a  product  of  the  distillation  of 


ANTIQUE  PAINTING. 


29 


indigo.  It  attracted  immediate  attention  from 
chemists,  was  made  the  subject  of  many  research- 
es, which  contributed  greatly  to  enlarge  the  facts 
and  theories  of  modern  chemistry.  But  it  did  not 
acquire  any  commercial  importance  till  1856,  when 
W.  H.  Perkins  prepared  from  it  the  beautiful  pur- 
ple dye  mauve. 

The  brilliancy  and  intensity  of  this  color  attract- 
ed the  attention  of  chemists  and  dyers,  and  in  a 
short  time  an  entirely  new  series  of  colors  was 
discovered  by  which  the  art  of  dyeing  has  been 
almost  revolutionized.  Attempts  have  been  made 
to  introduce  colors  made  for  the  painter  from  ana- 
line,  but  so  far  they  have  proved  extremely  fugitive. 

Antimony  Yellow. — Yellow  pigments  formed  by  a 
compound  of  the  oxides  of  lead  and  antimony. 
The  principal  one  of  these  yellows  is  Naples  yellow, 
a  soft  shade  of  canary  color,  and  one  frequently 
used  for  panel  colors  on  carriages  and  sleighs. 
It  is  extremely  hard  to  grind  either  upon  the  stone 
or  in  a  mill,  and  resort  is  had  by  some  painters 
to  soften  the  lumps  by  placing  the  pigment  in  a 
tin  vessel  having  holes  in  the  bottom  and  pouring 
water  upon  it.  The  water  is  absorbed,  and  when 
the  superabundant  water  has  drained  through  the 
holes,  the  pigment  is  placed  upon  a  board  or  table 
to  dry  ;  after  which  it  is  found  to  crush  and  grind 
easily. 

There  are  many  other  pigments  which  may  be 
treated  in  a  similar  manner,  but  in  every  case  care 
should  be  taken  that  all  moisture  has  evaporated 
before  mixing  the  pigment  for  paint. 

Antique  Painting. — A  name  frequently  used  in  the 
place  of  transferring  (which  see). 


30 


ANTWERP  BLUE. 


Antwerp  Blue. — Also  called,  Haarlem,  Berlin,  or 
Mineral  blue.  A  pigment  similar  to  Prussian 
blue,  but  of  a  lighter  color  and  brighter.  Tube 
color  of  this  blue  is  preferred  by  artists  to  Prus- 
sian blue  on  account  of  its  durability.  Prussian 
blue  is  a  fugitive  color,  in  artists'  work. 

Antwerp  Brown. — A  mixture  of  asphaltum  and  dry- 
ing oils  which  is  less  liable  to  the  troubles,  such 
as  cracking,  chipping,  etc.,  than  the  ordinary 
asphaltum  of  the  dealer.  Bituminous  coal  and 
bituminous  ochres,  peat  or  bog  earth  afford  similar 
browns,  and  these  too  are  often  added  to  the 
asphaltum  solution.  It  is  seldom  used  on  car- 
riage work. 

Arabesque. — A  peculiar  kind  of  fantastic  decoration 
as  its  name  implies — after  the  Arabian  manner — 
commonly  employed  in  architecture,  and  which 
Spanish  Moors  are  supposed  to  have  introduced 
into  modern  Europe.  Arabesque  consists  usually 
of  combinations  of  plants,  birds  and  animals  of  all 
kinds,  including  the  human  figure,  and  embracing 
not  only  every  natural  variety,  but  stepping  with- 
out hesitation  beyond  the  bounds  of  nature. 
Raphael's  arabesques  which  adorned  the  Vatican, 
are  said  to  be  the  most  beautiful  and  the  most 
famous  which  the  modern  world  has  produced. 
Many  of  the  designs  sold  as  transfers  or  decalco- 
manie  are  of  this  order,  and  there  could  scarcely 
be  anything  more  appropriate  for  sleighs  and 
wagon  work. 

Architrave. — Moldings  enclosing  door  or  window, 
and  also  next  beneath  a  frieze. 

Armenian  Blue. — The  ancients  employed  a  species 
of  ultramarine,  and  called  also  by  them  Cyanus, 


ASPHALTUM. 


31 


which  was  extremely  durable  and  of  an  expensive 
character.  The  blue  now  labeled  American,  is 
simply  an  imitation. 

Arsenical  Green. — A  pigment  similar  to  Scheele's 
green,  Mitis  green,  Paris  green,  etc.,  all  being, 
simply,  the  arsenite  of  copper. 

Arsenic  Yellow. — A  pigment  prepared  from  arsenic 
fluxed  with  litharge  and  then  powdered.  It  is 
similar  to  orpiment  (q.  v.)  in  color,  but  not  being 
affected  by  lead  it  is  not  so  liable  to  change  in  tint. 
All  tints,  however,  of  white  lead  are  destroyed  by 
arsenic  colors. 

Asphaltum. — Called  also  bitumen,  mineral  pitch, 
Jews'  pitch.  It  is  found  in  a  natural  state  upon 
the  shores  of  the  Dead  sea,  and  from  which  that 
expanse  of  water  takes  the  name  of  Asphaltic 
Lake  ;  and  is  also  found  as  a  residue  in  the  distil- 
lation of  various  resins  and  bituminous  matters, 
in  preparing-  essential  oils.  Asphaltum  is  princi- 
pally dissolved  in  spirits  of  turpentine  and  is  sold 
by  the  retailer  at  a  low  price.  Its  fine  brown 
transparency  lures  to  its  free  use  in  shading  on 
gold,  notwithstanding-  the  rapid  destruction  which 
awaits  the  work  on  which  it  is  much  employed, 
owing*  to  its  disposition  to  crack  by  changes  of 
temperature  and  the  atmosphere,  but  for  which  it 
would  be  a  most  beautiful  pigment. 

For  shading  gold  scrolling,  it  is  best  to  add 
one-third  burnt  sienna  tube  color,  which  lends  a 
warmer  hue  to  the  shade,  and  adds  durability. 
The  manner  of  working  the  asphaltum  shading, 
may  here  be  mentioned.  The  gilding  being  com- 
pleted, give  it  a  coat  of  rubbing  varnish,  for  if 
the  shade  be  put  upon  unvarnished  gold,  a  portion 


ASPHALTUM. 


will  be  absorbed  and  the  work  will  appear  cloudy 
or  '  'muddy,"  a  feature  which  the  varnish  prevents; 
beside,  when  the  gold  has  been  varnished  over  there 
will  be  no  trouble  in  wiping-  off  any  of  the  shade 
that  is  not  correct  or  desirable. 

The  varnish  coat  being-  dry,  remove  the  gloss  by 
rubbing  with  pumice-stone  and  water,  or  curled 
hair,  then  with  the  asphaltum  and  sienna  mixture 
(as  before  stated)  thinned  so  it  is  very  transparent 
— simply  a  glazing  with  turpentine  and  liquid  drier 
or  japan.  Begin  the  laying  on,  using  a  rather 
short-haired  camel's-hair  pencil,  putting  the  shade 
only  where  it  is  required  to  be  darkest ;  let  it  dry, 
then  go  over  it  again  and  blend  off  to  the  light 
shades,  and  repeat  until  the  shade  is  dark  enough 
— do  not  seek  to  make  it  too  dark  a  shade.  There 
are  movements  or  "sweeps"  of  the  pencil  that 
cannot  be  described,  one  must  see  the  work  done 
to  be  proficient.  Never  make  an  attempt  to 
retouch  a  spot,  or  laps  will  occur  and  spoil  the 
work. 

Black  japan  as  used  by  the  carriage-maker  is 
composed  principally  of  asphaltum  gum.  And 
the  baking  japans  of  the  japanner  are  also  pre- 
pared from  it. 

Asphaltum  forms  a  good  stain  for  changing 
oak-grained  work  to  black  walnut.  Simply  dilute 
the  asphaltum  with  rubbing  varnish  until  a  glaz- 
ing is  produced,  then  apply  an  even  coat  with 
varnish  brushes.  Asphaltum  was,  and  may 
be  still,  used  by  glass  sign  painters  to  back  up 
their  gold  leaf,  .but  its  certainty  to  peel  off  by 
atmospheric  changes,  no  matter  how  it  may  be 
mixed,  should  discourage  its  use  entirely.  Asphal- 
tum is  a  useful  paint  or  lacquer  in  every  carriage 


AUREOLIN  YELLOW. 


33 


paint  shop  for  glazing  over  "touched  up "  places 
on  black,  before  varnishing",  and  especially  is  this 
the  case  where  the  ground  was  made  with  black 
japan. 

Auburn.— A  brownish  red,  made  by  adding  red  to 
raw  umber. 

Aureolin  Yellow. — An  excellent  pigment,  not  acted 
upon  by  lime  or  potash  and  therefore  extensively 
used  for  fresco  and  silicious  painting.  It  is  ex- 
tremely permanent,  and  is  not  affected  by  admix- 
ture with  other  colors. 


B 


B. — The  second  letter  of  the  English  alphabet,  con- 
sisting of  a  vertical  bar  joined  to  two  semi-circles. 
The  lower  circle  of  the  letter  is  made  a  trifle  larger 
than  the  top  circle,  although  this  is  not  so  notice- 
able when  the  letter  is  in  proper  position,  as  it  is 
when  it  is  turned  over  or  "  upside  down."  This  is 
done  to  give  a  perfect  balance  to  the  letter,  for  if 
the  upper  and  lower  semi-circles  were  alike,  the 
letter  would  appear  as  if  it  could  easily  be  pushed 
over.  As  it  is,  it  stands  firmly  and  presents  a  bold 
appearance. 

Back-ground. — That  part  of  a  picture  which  repre- 
sents the  extreme  distance,  or  the  space  behind  a 
group  of  figures. 

Backing. — In  painting  or  gilding  on  glass,  that  which 
is  to  appear  on  the  front  of  the  glass  is,  when  dry 
coated  upon  the  back,  called  backing  or  "  backing 
up".  It  was  the  practice  some  years  ago  to  back 
up  gold  letters  with  asphaltum,  owing  to  its  quick 
drying  and  glossy  properties,  but  experience  has 
proved  that  this  is  a  very  bad  proceeding,  the  as- 
phaltum being  extremely  fugitive.  A  mixture  of 
lamp-black  and  varnish  with  some  oil  added  is  far 
superior  as  a  backing — in  fact  any  oil  paint  will 
answer  a  good  purpose. 

Badger. — An  animal  very  similar  to  a  bear,  in- 
habiting most  parts  of  Europe,  Asia  and  North 


BAKING  JAPAN. 


35 


America;  one  species  found  in  this  country  is 
called  the  ground  hog".  The  hairs  or  bristles  of 
this  animal  are  made  into  brushes  for  painters. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  so-called  badger-hair 
brushes  are  made  with  a  mixture  of  white  skunk 
and  hog  hair.  Even  in  the  badger-hair  there  is 
a  difference  in  quality ;  the  winter  killed  animals 
produce  the  best  hair,  and  that  which  grows  down 
the  back  is  decidedly  the  best  and  liveliest,  and 
makes  a  brush  that  will  give  perfect  satisfaction 
and  outwear  those  made  of  inferior  stock.  These 
brushes,  preferred  by  the  best  workmen  for  var- 
nishing on  carriage  bodies  to  the  fitch-hair  (q.  v.) 
brush,  from  the  fact  that  they  hold  or  carry  more 
varnish,  possess  more  spring  or  elasticity,  and 
the  hair  is  not  apt  to  break  and  give  annoyance 
in  varnishing  as  is  the  case  with  the  fitch. 

Badger  Softener. — A  brush  made  of  badger-hair, 
for  use  in  softening  or  blending  the  marks  made 
in  graining  various  woods. 

Baking  Japan. — A  composition  of  asphaltum  or 
Jews'  pitch  (q.  v.),  used  for  giving  color  and  a 
gloss  at  the  same  time  to  any  surface  capable  of 
withstanding  a  strong  heat,  as  hardware  tools, 
machinery,  etc.  A  baking  japan  should  be  made 
with  a  view  to  certain  adaptions,  as  for  example,  a 
japan  exactly  suited  for  tinware  and  goods  of  that 
description  Avhich  requires  a  temperature  of  say 
120  degrees  Fah.  to  properly  bake,  would  be 
entirely  inappropriate  for  grates  and  fenders  and 
other  iron  goods  which  are  to  be  exposed  to  rough 
usage,  or,  perhaps,  to  a  considerable  degree  of 
heat  while  in  use.  The  latter  work  needs  an  oven 
at  about  500  degrees  Fah.,  in  which  it  will  harden 


BAKING  JAPAN. 


in  about  twenty  minutes,  if  the  work  is  well  pre- 
pared, while  at  the  temperature  requisite  for  the 
other  class  of  goods,  it  will  not  harden  and  become 
durable  though  baked  for  daj^s.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  japan  exactly  suitable  for  the  lighter 
goods  would  be  burned  and  irretrievably  injured 
at  this  high  heat.  Consumers  will  learn  from  this 
hint,  if  they  have  not  already  learned  from  experi- 
ence, that  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance  for  them 
to  let  the  varnish  manufacturer  or  dealer  know 
exactly  what  uses  his  japans  are  required  for,  in 
order  to  be  supplied  with  the  kind  adapted  to  the 
particular  work  in  hand.  Much  vexation  would 
be  saved  if  japanners  would  follow  the  rule  of  pro- 
curing different  and  suitable  brands  of  japan  for 
their  different  kinds  of  work,  and  much  vexation 
will  be  caused  if  they  neglect  to  do  so  ;  and  persist 
in  the  common  habit  of  coating  lunch  boxes  with 
the  same  coating  they  apply  to  piano  plates  and 
sewing  machines.  Another  cause  of  bad  results  is 
the  tendency  on  the  part  of  the  emplo37es  and  even 
of  the  boss  himself,  no  matter  how  intelligent,  to 
tamper  with  the  composition  of  the  best  adapted 
stock  by  thinning,  thus  rendering  it  entirely  unfit 
for  the  use  intended  or  indeed  for  any  other.  A 
good  japan  for  cast-iron  work,  we  will  say,  is  com- 
posed of  certain  ingredients  in  certain  proportions, 
these  ingredients  always  bearing  the  same  rela- 
tion to  each  other,  and  each  being  as  necessary  as 
the  others  to  perfect  the  mass.  Among  these  in- 
gredients, glutinous  matters  form  no  inconsidera- 
ble part.  Now,  when  a  japan  exactly  adapted  to 
its  use  in  this  way  is  applied  to  a  piece  of  iron  and 
afterward  submitted  to  an  appropriate  degree  of 
heat,  to  the  mind  of  the  uneducated  artisan  it  ap- 


BAKING  JAPAN. 


37 


pears  to  simply  dry  and  form  a  glossy  and  endur- 
ing- coating-  on  the  surface  of  the  metal.  Really, 
however,  the  process  is  a  much  more  complicated 
one.  In  the  first  place  the  heat  applied  to  the 
metal  opens  the  pores  of  that  metal,  at  the  same 
time  rarifying  and  expelling  the  air  contained  in 
those  pores.  Then  the  coating  applied,  rendered 
more  than  ordinarily  fluid  by  the  same  heat  sinks 
into  and  fills  up  the  apertures  thus  opened  and 
rendered  vacant,  and  the  consequence  is  that  the 
japan  not  only  sticks  to  the  surface  of  the  iron,  as 
it  is  said  to  do  in  common  parlance,  but  it  is  abso- 
lutely rooted  thereto  by  myriads  of  invisible  but 
tenacious  roots  which  extend  down  into  its  very 
body. 

Next  comes  the  cooling  process  in  which  the 
pores  return  to  their  former  size,  gripping  these 
roots  more  firmly  as  they  contract  until  the  film 
on  its  exterior  is  held  to  the  metal  almost  as  rigidly 
as  though  it  were  a  part  and  parcel  thereof. 

The  case  viewed  in  this  light,  it  will  not  be  diffi- 
cult for  anyone  to  comprehend  what  the  result 
will  be  where  the  character  of  the  japan  is  altered 
by  the  unguarded  addition  of  turpentine  or  oil. 

The  question  at  once  arises,  how  should  our 
japans  be  liquified  when  of  too  firm  a  consistency  ? 
Precluded  from  the  use  of  turpentine,  our  standard 
resort,  and  also  of  oil,  what  shall  be  used  for  thin- 
ning? We  answer,  use  baking  copal  varnish 
which  has  properties  which  not  only  render  it  the 
best  thinner  at  present  known,  but  which  has 
other  properties  which  fit  it  to  proper^  anchor  the 
japan  to  the  metal.  Having  prepared  the  japan 
for  use,  the  next  necessity — also  a  very  important 
one — is  to  have  the  surface  of  the  metal  in  a  pro- 


38 


BAKING  JAPANS. 


per  state ;  particularly  to  have  it  cleaned  from  all 
substances  which  will  prevent  the  coating1  from 
taking-  hold,  such  as  animal  oils,  coal  oil,  or  other 
extraneous  matters. 

In  regard  to  the  number  of  coats  necessary  to 
the  production  of  good  work,  a  great  deal  de- 
pends upon  the  nature  of  the  metal  to  be  covered. 
Lead,  and  some  compositions,  for  example,  require 
a  priming  of  lamp-black  and  oil,  while  others  can 
be  effectively  manipulated  without  extra  labor  by 
one  application  and  one  heat.  Where  more  than 
one  application  of  japan  is  requisite,  let  the  first 
be  thinner  than  those  to  succeed  it,  in  order  that 
it  may  properly  sink  in  and  clinch  and  form  a  bed 
for  the  others.  It  should  also  be  baked  at  a  high- 
er temperature  than  the  others,  as  there  should 
be  no  material  softening  of  this  coat  when  once 
fixed.  This  will  also  avoid  the  expulsion,  on  the 
second  baking,  of  any  vapors  from  it  through  the 
other,  thereby  preventing  bubbling,  blistering, 
cracking  and  porousness  of  the  outer  layer.  There 
was  a  time  when  it  was  considered  absolutely  nec- 
essary to  forestall  all  japans  with  a  priming  of  the 
nature  of  that  above  mentioned,  but  happily  the 
developments  incident  to  experience  and  progress 
have  enabled  varnish  manufacturers  to  so  improve 
upon  ancient  modes  of  manufacture  that  they  are 
enabled  now  to  furnish  the  tradesman  with  a  stock 
which  will  produce  the  desired  effect,  except  upon 
the  substances  alluded  to,  without  the  necessity  of 
this  double  or  treble  outlay  of  time. 
Banner  Work. — Painting  on  canvas  and  muslin  is 
sometimes  a  difficult  job,  but  if  the  paint  be  pro- 
perly mixed  and  the  material  to  be  worked  on 
properly  prepared  there  is  less  difficulty.  Stretch 


BANNER  WORK. 


39 


the  canvas  upon  a  partition  or  upon  the  floor, 
and  tack  it  fast,  then  lay  out  the  lettering 
with  white  chalk,  or  very  lightly  with  charcoal, 
now  dash  over  the  whole  a  plentiful  supply  of 
clean  water,  and  with  paint  mixed  with  japan  and 
turpentine  (no  oil)  proceed  with  the  work ;  a  flat 
bristle  pencil  is  excellent  for  outlining-,  filling-  in 
with  a  larg-er  brush.  A  g-ood  plan  for  large  let- 
ters is  to  use  a  strip  of  tin  in  the  manner  of  a  sten- 
cil to  form  the  edg-e  of  a  letter,  then  fill  in  with  a 
larg-e  brush.  For  fine  muslin  the  work  may  be 
done  with  ordinary  lettering-  pencils.  Oil  color  is 
apt  to  work  badly ;  the  oil  leaves  the  paint  and 
saturates  the  canvas  around  the  letters,  but  japan 
color  will  not  do  so.  Some  prefer  to  fill  the  can- 
vas with  starch  or  flour  paste,  before  lettering-, 
and  there  are  no  objections  to  it  that  we  know  of 
except  the  loss  of  time,  waiting-  for  the  paste  to 
dry. 

Stencils  may  be  used  to  advantag-e  on  mus- 
lin and  canvas  work,  and  we  know  of  painters  who 
have  larg-e  stencils  of  letters  cut  out  in  paste- 
board, which  they  use  for  the  purpose.  Silk  and 
satin  require  a  different  mode  of  operations. 
Stretch  the  material  upon  a  wall  and  secure  it  well 
by  tacks.  Lay  out  the  general  plan,  as  ribbons, 
border,  picture  ground,  etc.,  and  go  overall  with- 
in the  boundaries  with  size,  using  a  short  stiff 
bristle  brush,  or  a  small  sponge  may  be  used  to 
advantage,  using  care  not  to  drop  any  of  the  size 
on  parts  of  the  material  not  to  be  painted.  The 
size  may  be  made  of  gelatine,  two  ounces  to  a  pint 
of  water — when  the  gelatine  is  dissolved,  strain  it 
through  coarse  muslin,  and  apply  it  while  still  hot. 
Some  prefer  to  size  the  silk  all  over,  but  it  is 


40 


BARYTA  WHITE. 


best  to  do  only  that  which  is  to  be  painted.  When 
the  size  is  dry  lay  on  a  coat  of  white  paint  to  all 
within  the  lines,  going-  to  within  one-sixteenth  of 
an  inch  from  the  edge  of  the  sizing-  with  the  brush. 
When  the  white  is  dry  the  work  is  ready  for  pic- 
ture, lettering-  or  gilding-  as  desired.  The  white 
of  an  egg  is  used  by  some  artists  for  sizing,  while 
others  use  coach  japan  and  turpentine. 

Baryta  White. — (Sometimes  called  constant  or  per- 
manent white.)— A  pigment  made  from  "heavy 
spar",  or  in  other  words  the  sulphate  of  barium. 
It  is  a  good  white  for  fresco  and  water  color 
painting. 

Baryta  Yellow — The  true  Lemon  Yellow,  made  of 
chromic  acid  and  barium,  and  sometimes  called 
Yellow  Ultramarine. 

Bate. — The  marks  in  wood,  i.  e.,  the  grain,  knots, 
eyes,  curls,  etc.,  of  wood,  as  in  graining,  to  imitate 
various  woods. 

Bay. — One  division  of  a  series  of  panels  and  pilasters. 

Bed-Moldings. — Members  of  a  cornice  next  above 
the  frieze. 

Bell  of  a  Capital.— The  shaft  as  seen  behind  the 
leaves. 

Belt  or  Border. — Ornamental  stripes  put  around  or 
through  a  panel,  more  particularly  used  on  sleighs. 
Ornamental  belts  and  borders  are  supplied  in  trans- 
fer or  decalcomanie,  and  they  will  be  found  excel- 
lent for  hurried  work.  Many  feet  of  which  can  be 
put  on  in  a  few  minutes  more  uniform  and  perfect 
than  any  hand- work. 


bird's-eye  view. 


41 


Bice. — A  light  blue  color  prepared  from  smalts.  By 
mixing-  it  with  yellow  orpiment  bice  green  is 
formed. 

Binary  Colors. — Compound  colors.  Those  colors 
which  are  produced  by  mixing  the  primary  colors 
in  pairs  ;  as  orange,  produced  by  mixing-  red  and 
yellow  ;  green,  from  yellow  and  blue;  violet,  from 
blue  and  red. 

Binding. — The  cohesion  given  to  particles  of  paint 
by  liquids  ;  such  as  oil,  varnish,  japan,  etc.  When 
the  quality  known  as  binding-  is  gone  from  paint, 
the  pig-ment  will  rub  off  in  a  fine  dust,  and  this 
loss  of  binding-  when  the  paint  was  properly  mixed, 
is  generally  due  to  absorption  of  the  liquids  by  a 
porous  foundation.  {See  American  Method  of 
Carriage  Painting.)  If  dry  pigment  be  mixed 
with  spirits  of  turpentine  alone,  there  will  be  no 
binding,  and  as  soon  as  the  turpentine  has  evap- 
orated the  color  may  be  brushed  off.  Oil  oxidizes 
and  forms  a  sort  of  resin  which  binds  the  particles 
of  pigment,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  oil  (linseed 
oil)  must  be  used  in  all  cases.  Varnish,  japan, 
liquid-drier,  all  of  which  contain  oil  as  a  base, 
may  be  used  to  advantage,  and  thus  the  paint  be 
made  to  dry  in  a  short  time.  For  stains,  where 
water  is  the  medium,  a  little  sugar,  molasses, 
white  of  an  egg,  etc.,  may  be  added  as  a  binding, 
while  ale  beer  is  preferred  as  a  vehicle  by  many. 

Bird's-eye  View. — A  phrase  used  among  artists  to 
designate  the  picture  of  any  machine,  building, 
etc.,  where  the  spectator  is  supposed  to  look  from 
above.  The  plan  of  such  a  picture  is  parallel  to 
the  horizon. 


42 


BISMARCK  BROWN. 


Bismarck  Brown.  —  A  mixture  of  burnt  sienna 
chrome  yellow  and  lake.    (See  Brown.) 

Bistre. — This  is  a  brown  color  used  in  water-color 
painting.  It  is  prepared  from  the  root  of  beech- 
wood.  All  the  insoluble  residue,  after  a  thorough 
washing',  is  mixed  with  gum  water  and  formed 
into  cakes. 

Bitumen. — A  resinous  substance  rendered  brown  by 
the  action  of  fire.    (See  Asphaltum.) 

Black. — The  total  absorption  of  all  the  rays  of  light 
constitute  black ;  on  the  same  principle  that  white, 
also  an  absence  of  color,  is  produced  by  the  reflec- 
tion of  all  the  light.  White  is  pure  light,  not 
broken  into  colors  ;  black  is  darkness  in  which  all 
colors  are  absorbed.  There  are  several  pigments 
which  supply  us  a  black,  as  lamp-black,  ivory- 
black,  bone-black,  etc.,  which  see. 

Black-Board  Paint.— The  paint  for  a  black-board  on 
which  to  use  chalk,  should  be  composed  of  material 
that  gives  a  good  black  color,  has  a  slight  rough- 
ness, and  from  which  the  chalk  marks  may  be 
easily  removed.  Common  oil  paint  is  unfitted  for 
the  purpose. 

Take  one  quart  of  shellac  dissolved  in  alcohol  to 
a  thin  varnish  consistency,  or  else  procure  from 
the  dealer,  shellac  varnish  ready  prepared.  Add 
three  ounces  of  pulverized  pumice-stone,  two  ounces 
pulverized  rotten-stone,  four  ounces  of  lamp-bla  ck; 
mix  the  last  three  ingredients  together,  moisten 
a  portion  at  a  time  with  shellac  varnish,  and  grind 
as  thoroughly  as  possible  with  a  knife  or  spatula 
upon  a  marble  slab  or  glass  ;  after  which  pour  in 
the  remainder  of  the  varnish — sufficient  to  form 
a  paint — stirring  often  to  prevent  setting. 


BLACK  FOR  FINE  PAINTING. 


43 


One  quart  will  furnish  two  coats  for  eight  square 
feet  of  board  not  previously  painted. 

It  is  quick  drying,  and  the  board  may  be  used 
in  a  short  time.  A  preparation  for  black-boards, 
under  the  name  of  "  Silicate  slate  paint "  is  now  in 
market,  and  it  is  highly  recommended  by  those 
who  have  used  it. 

The  draft-boards  of  a  carriage  factory  should 
be  coated  with  the  above  paint  at  least  once  a 
month  to  keep  them  in  good  order. 

Black  Chalk. — A  kind  of  black  oclay  containing  a 
large  quantity  of  carbon,  found  in  various  parts 
of  Europe.  The  finer  sorts  are  made  into  artists' 
crayons.  The  black  chalk  most  commonly  seen 
is  charcoal  made  of  willow  wood.  Great  care  is 
taken  in  burning  the  twigs  of  the  willow  tree  to 
charcoal,  for  if  not  thoroughly  charred  the  stick 
will  be  hard,  and  if  too  much  burned  it  will 
crumble  easily. 

Black  Color-and-Varnish. — The  carriage  painter 
uses  such  a  quantity  of  this  material  that  varnish 
manufacturers  thought  it  best  to  prepare  it  for 
them,  and  thus  it  is  that  we  find  in  market,  cans 
of  the  material  bearing  that  name.  It  is  simply 
the  best  quality  ivo^-black,  ground-fine  in  rub- 
bing  varnish.  Being  mixed  in  large  quantities  it 
is  far  more  uniform  than  that  mixed  by  the  painter, 
and  it  is  also  much  more  convenient.  Though  not 
as  black  as  black  japan,  it  is  said  to  be  more 
durable. 

Black  for  Fine  Painting.— When  camphor  gum  is 
burned  and  the  soot  collected  by  means  of  a  paper 
funnel  or  a  saucer  inverted  over  it,  the  result 
mixed  with  gum-arabic  will  be  found  far  superior 
to  the  best  ivory-black. 


44 


BLACK  LEAD. 


Black  Lead. — Plumbago  or  G?*aphite,  is  a  native 
carburet  of  iron  or  oxide  of  carbon,  found  in  many 
countries,  but  partic  ularly  in  Borrodale,  in  Cumber- 
land and  Russia,  where  there  are  mines  of  it,  from 
which  a  good  qualit}' is  obtained,  and  it  is  consum- 
ed in  large  quantities  in  the  formation  of  craj^ons 
and  black-lead  pencils  which  are  in  universal  use. 
In  oil  it  is  useful  as  it  possesses  remarkably  the 
property  of  covering-,  forms  very  pure  gray  tints, 
dries  quickly,  injures  no  color  chemically,  and 
endures  forever. 

The  carriage  striper  will  find  it  a  very  useful 
pigment  or  bronze  (as  it  is  used  the  same  as  bronze). 
He  first  prepares  the  ground  for  striping,  in  the 
same  manner  as  if  about  to  apply  gold  bronze,  lays 
on  the  size,  etc.,  but  instead  of  using  bronze,  the 
black-lead  is  rubbed  over  the  size,  this  gives  a  sort 
of  metallic  lustre  to  the  stripe,  and  when  it  is 
glazed  over  with  very  thin  carmine  or  blue,  it  pro- 
duces a  very  fine  effect. 

Black  Japan. — A  composition  of  asphaltum  and  oil. 
This  article  was  introduced  into  the  carriage 
shops  of  the  United  States  many  years  ago  under 
the  name  of  "  English  Black  Japan,"  and  was 
employed  almost  exclusively  at  that  time  for 
blacking  the  iron  work  on  bodies  ;  but  its  advan- 
tages over  the  ordinary  black  color-and-varnish 
(q.  v.)  upon  all  portions  colored  black  on  bodies 
was  soon  discovered  and  its  employment  adopted 
by  many  first-class  builders.  However,  there 
were  comparatively  few  who  achieved  success 
with  it,  and  its  importation  decreased  until  Messrs. 
Valentine  &  Co.  began  its  manufacture  under  the 
name  of  u  Black  Body  Varnish,"  since  which  time 
it  has  been  in  use  in  many  of  the  best  shops,  and 


BLACK  JAPAN. 


45 


its  superiority  over  all  other  mixtures  for  black 
surfaces  is  fully  established.  Black  japan  is  a 
liquid  of  about  the  same  consistency  as  varnish, 
of  a  jet-black  color,  although  of  a  brownish  tint 
when  applied  over  a  light  color,  or  on  tin  or  glass. 
Furthermore,  while  ordinary  blacks  have  a  green- 
ish hue  when  varnished,  this  article  will  retain  its 
jet  color.  It  has  no  grains  as  a  mixture  of 
pigment  and  varnish,  and  its  flowing  qualities  are 
good.  Many  err  in  supposing  that  it  will  cover 
at  once,  and  thus  take  the  place  of  color,  and 
furnish  with  two  or  three  applications  a  perfect 
surface  over  any  ground  ;  but  this  is  not  the  case. 
It  was  never  intended  for  such  a  purpose  ;  it  is 
semi-transparent,  and  when  put  upon  a  white 
ground  produces  a  brownish  tint  or  glaze. 

The  manner  of  use  by  the  best  painters  is  :  first, 
having  the  body  (it  is  seldom  used  on  gears) 
colored  and  color-and-varnished,  then  well  rubbed 
down  with  pumice-stone  and  water,  the  body  is 
turned  upon  its  side,  and  the  upper  portion  is 
coated  with  japan,  applied  with  varnish  brushes, 
and  worked  over  as  quickly  as  possible,  for  the 
japan  sets  quickly.  In  a  few  minutes  the  japan 
will  have  flowed  down  level  and  have  set,  so  that 
the  body  may  be  turned  over  and  the  other  parts 
done  in  the  same  manner.  Of  course  the  material 
can  be  put  on  while  the  body  is  resting  on  a  trestle 
in  a  natural  position,  but  there  being  a  liability  of 
runs  and  flows  in  the  surface,  it  is  best  to  turn 
the  body  so  that  the  the  work  may  be  done  on  the 
horizontal  parts. 

Black  japan  should  be  given  plenty  of  time  for 
drying  before  another  coat,  or  coat  of  varnish  is 


46 


BLACK  SABLE. 


put  over  it,  else  it  is  apt  to  turn  green  ;  but  if  well 
dried  it  is  ever  a  perfect  jet-black. 

Black  japan  varnish  is  made  by  putting*  in  the 
jet  pot  48  pounds  of  Naples  or  other  foreign  asphal- 
tum,  except  the  Egyptian,  and  as  soon  as  it  is 
melted  pouring  in  ten  gallons  of  raw  linseed  oil, 
using  a  moderate  fire.  Then  fuse  8  pounds  of  dark 
gum  animi  in  the  gum  pot,  mix  with  two  gallons 
of  hot  oil  and  pour  it  into  the  jet  pot.  Afterwards 
fuse  two  gallons  of  dark  or  sea  amber  in  a  ten- 
gallon  iron  pot ;  keep  stirring  while  fusing,  and 
whenever  it  appears  to  be  overheated  and  rising  too 
high,  lift  it  from  the  fire  for  a  few  minutes.  When 
it  appears  completely  fused  mix  in  two  gallons  of 
hot  oil  and  pour  the  mixture  into  the  jet  pot. 
Continue  the  boiling  for  three  hours  longer,  and 
in  that  time  introduce  the  proper  quantity  of  driers; 
draw  out  the  fire,  letting  the  preparation  remain 
over-night.  Then  boil  it  until  it  rolls  hard  ;  let  it 
cool  and  afterwards  mix  it  with  turpentine. 

Black  Sable. — The  hair  used  in  pencils  for  striping 
and  ornamenting  is  obtained  from  the  tip  of  the 
tail  only  of  the  Sable  Martin,  an  animal  com- 
mon to  both  hemispheres,  but  there  is  so  small 
an  amount  which  can  be  used  for  making  pencils 
that  the  price  is  extremely  high,  a  simple  tail 
bringing  as  high  as  $3.00  to  $5.00.  For  lettering 
and  scrolling  there  is  no  pencil  that  equals  the 
sable.    (See  Pencils.) 

Blanc  D' Argent. — Or  silver  white. — These  are  false 
appellations  of  a  white  lead,  called  also  French 
white.  It  is  brought  from  Paris  in  the  form  of 
drops,  is  pure  white,  but  of  less  body  than  flake 
white,  and  has  all  the  properties  of  the  best  white 
leads. 


BLISTERING. 


47 


Blaze-Stick. — A  tool  used  in  graining-  to  imitate 
various  woods.  It  consists  of  a  piece  of  wood 
three  inches  long  and  one  inch  wide,  shaved  down 
very  thin.  A  paper  card  is  sometimes  used  in- 
stead. Its  purpose  is  to  make  the  bright  blazes 
in  the  centre  of  a  branch  or  crotch  of  a  tree  by  a 
dexterous  twist  of  the  tool,  or  sliding  it  up  and 
bearing  it  round  to  the  right  or  left. 

Blender. — A  brush  used  to  blend  or  intimately  mingle 
certain  parts  of  work  by  artists  and  grainers,  so 
that  it  cannot  be  told  where  one  shade  of  color 
begins,  or  where  another  leaves  olf — to  soften  the 
marks  made  by  graining  comb  and  wiping  cloth 
and  thus  make  a  better  imitation  of  hard  woods. 

Blending. — The  method  of  laying-  different  tints  so 
that  they  may  mingle  together  while  wet,  and 
render  it  impossible  to  discover  where  one  color 
begins  and  another  ends.  A  variety  of  tints  of 
nearly  the  same  tone,  employed  on  the  same  object 
and  on  the  same  part,  gives  a  richness  and  mellow- 
ness to  the  effect,  while  the  outline,  insensibly 
melting  into  the  back-ground,  blends  the  objects 
together  and  preserves  them  in  unison. 

Blistering.— One  of  the  "  deviltries  "  of  varnish  and 
paint.  The  swelling-  out  of  parts  of  a  varnished 
or  painted  surface  into  bubbles  or  blisters,  similar 
to  that  produced  by  the  action  of  heat.  Blistering 
of  a  varnished  surface  after  the  varnish  has  had 
proper  time  to  harden,  is  due  to  the  evaporation  of 
moisture  which  lies  confined  under  the  shell  of 
varnish. 

This  evaporation  is  caused  by  heat,  and  it  is 
seldom,  if  ever,  a  blister  will  rise  upon  a  varnished 
surface,  without  the  temperature  is  raised  to  an 


BLISTERING. 


extreme  degree,  near  to  that  which  the  varnish 
received  in  its  manufacture. 

The  accumulation  of  moisture  under  the  varnish 
may  be  brought  about  in  several  ways ;  the  most 
particular  one  being  in  the  closing  in  of  moisture 
in  the  rough-stuff.  During  the  rubbing  of  the 
rough-stuff  the  water  used  is  partty  absorbed,  and 
unless  due  care  is  taken  to  give  ample  time 
for  "drying  out"  before  the  application  of  subse- 
quent coats  a  great  amount  of  moisture  will  be 
confined  within  the  cells  of  the  porous  paint. 
Boiled  oil  contains 
moisture  or  volatile 
properties,  and  when 
steam  is  used  to  ex- 
press the  oil  from  the 
seed  the  percentage  is 
increased.  Turpen- 
tine, an  extremly  vol- 
atile liquid,  also  forms 
an  evaporating  sub- 
stance which  slight  FlG>  2._block  Letter. 
heat  renders  active, 

and  in  its  haste  to  reach  the  air  it  disturbs  the 
outer  surface,  either  lifting  an  elastic  coating  into 
bubbles  or  blisters,  or  bursting  open  a  hard  and 
inelastic  one  into  cracks.  The  primary  cause, 
then,  of  blistering  is  moisture,  either  in  the  form  of 
wet  moisture,  or  of  evaporating  liquids.  The  wood 
may  have  been  painted  before  it  had  been  seasoned, 
or  it  may  have  been  steamed  or  wet  in  course  of 
preparation.  Paint  may  have  been  applied  before 
the  rough-stuff  was  free  from  dampness,  either  of 
which  would  have  caused  disastrous  results. 
Dry  blistering  is  simply  the  hasty  absorption  of 


BLUE  CARMINE. 


49 


the  liquids  from  outer  coats  by  paint  or  putty 
which  is  extremely  porous,  depriving-  the  coatings 
of  the  requisite  amount  of  binding  and  adhesive- 
ness. 

Block  Letter. — The  name  given  to  a  style  of  letter 
whose  parts  are  of  one  width  or  nearly  so.  The 
letter  H  shown  in  Fig*.  2  fully  illustrating-  this 
particular  feature.  There  are  several  kinds  of 
such  letters,  known  as  "Full  Block,"  "Half 
Block,"  etc.  (which  see). 

Blood-Red. — The  color  of  blood.  Carmine  (q.  v.)  is 
the  pigment  which  gives  this  color. 

Blue. — One  of  the  primary  colors.  A  color  that  can- 
not be  composed  by  mixture  of  other  colors.  The 
paucity  of  blue  pigments,  in  comparison  with  those 
of  yellow  and  red,  is  amply  compensated  by  their 
value  and  perfection ;  nor  is  the  palette  without 
novelty,  nor  deficient  in  pigments  of  this  color,  of 
which  the  following  comprise  some  of  those  of 
most  importance  to  the  painter :  Ultramarine, 
cobalt  blue,  smalt,  Prussian  blue,  royal  blue, 
Antwerp  blue,  etc.  (which  see  under  their  re- 
spective heads). 

Blue  Ashes. — A  pigment  made  by  combining-  lime 
with  a  weak  solution  of  nitrate  of  copper. 

Blue  Black. — A  well  burned  charcoal,  made  by  burn- 
ing- wine  lees  (the  refuse  in  making  grape  wine). 
Seldom  found  in  modern  paint  shops. 

Blue  Carmine.— A  pigment  which  is  very  little 
known.  It  is  said  to  be  of  a  beautiful  blue  color, 
and  durable  in  strong  light,  but  is  subject  to  change 
in  hue,  by  other  substances,  and  is  blackened  by 
foul  air.    For  these  reasons  it  is  of  but  little  value. 


50 


BLUE  FOR  WALLS. 


Blue  for  Walls  and  Ceilings.— To  3  pints  of  water 
add  !  pound  of  whiting-  and  1  pound  of  blue  vitriol, 
and  boil  slowly  for  several  hours,  stir  frequently, 
and  when  it  has  become  quite  cold,  pour  off  the 
liquid  and  mix  the  cake  of  color  with  good  glue 
size  and  use  it  the  same  as  white- wash. 

Blueing  and  Greening. — Terms  applied  to  the 
change  in  the  color  of  finished  vehicles,  caused  by 
the  exclusion  of  light  or  the  presence  of  impure 
air,  such  as  gas  from  a  coal  fire  ;  the  effect  being 
to  turn  blacks,  blues,  and  kindred  colors  green- 
ish, while  in  connection  with  dampness,  varnish 
will  become  bluish  or  smoky.  The  effect  may  be 
removed  by  washing,  but  when  the  body  of  the 
varnish  has  changed  color,  the  only  cure  consists 
in  rubbing  down  and  re-varnishing.  Accidental 
and  very  satisfactory  exceptions  may  now  and 
then  occur.  As  for  instance  :  A  gentleman  return- 
ing from  Europe,  sent  his  carriage  to  the  coach- 
builder  to  be  painted  green  ;  it  had  originally  been 
black,  but  was  found  to  have  changed  to  a  deep 
green,  03^  reason  of  long  storage  in  a  dark,  close 
stable,  and  so  uniformly,  that  by  simply  blacking 
the  moldings,  and  re-varnishing,  it  was  returned 
to  the  owner  with  a  bill  as  if  re-painted  to  order. 
The  blueing  of  varnish  may  be  frequently  noticed 
during  a  heavy  rain  storm.  And  as  all  high 
grade  varnishes  will  thus  turn  blue,  there  appears 
to  be  no  remedy,  although  some  varnishes  will 
turn  more  readily  than  others.  The  sun  removes 
the  blue  appearance. 

Blue  Orchre. — A  mineral  color  of  rare  occurrence, 
found  in  Cornwall,  Eng.,  and  in  North  America. 
What  Indian  red  is  to  the  color  red,  and  Oxford 


BODY  GREEN. 


51 


orchre  to  yellow,  this  is  to  other  blue  colors. 
It  is  admirable  rather  for  its  modesty  and  solid- 
ity, than  for  the  brilliancy  of  its  color. 

Blue  Tint- — In  coloring",  this  tint  is  made  of  ultrama- 
rine and  white,  mixed  to  a  light  azure  color.  It 
follows  the  yellows,  and  with  them  makes  greens, 
and  with  reds  it  produces  purples. 

Blue  Verditer.— A  beautiful  light  blue  color,  obtain- 
ed from  the  waste  nitrate  of  copper  by  adding-  to  it 
a  quantity  of  chalk.  It  is  little  affected  by  light; 
but  time,  damp  and  impure  air,  turn  it  green  and 
ultimately  blacken  it — chang-es  which  ensue  even 
more  rapidly  in  oil  than  in  water.  It  is  therefore 
used  principally  for  distemper  painting-,  though  it 
has  been  found  to  stand  well  many  years  in  water- 
color  drawing's,  when  kept  dry. 

Body. — A  thick  consistency  of  color.  The  quality  of 
opaqueness  or  covering-  power.  The  quality  of 
thickness  as  opposed  to  fluidity  in  varnish  and 
other  liquids.  We  say  a  paint  has  no  bod}r  when 
it  does  not  cover  the  ground  over  which  it  is  spread, 
thoug-h  it  may  appear  thick,  and  we  say  a  paint 
has  a  good  body  when  it  covers  well,  even  when 
applied  very  thinly  ;  as  a  g-ood  ivory-black  over 
white  china  completely  hides  the  surface  of  the 
china. 

Body  Colors. — In  heraldic  painting  there  are  parts 
when  the  color  must  be  laid  right  on  in  such  a 
manner  that  it  may  form  a  thick,  uniform  coating 
on  which  the  outline  is  traced,  and  this  paint  is 
called  body  color.  It  is  also  applied  to  any  finely 
ground  color  to  be  used  on  a  carriage  body. 

Body  Green. — Called  also  a  "Nile  Green,"  a  dark 
green  best  made  b}T  repeated  coatings  as  described 


52 


BODY  REST. 


herewith.  First  coat  the  work  with  a  mixture  of 
Prussian  blue,  Milori  green  and  black,  as  near  the 
desired  shade  possible,  then  glaze  (q.  v.)  with  3^el- 
low  lake  or  Dutch  pink. 

Body  Rest. — A  sort  of  bench  or  rest  for  carriage 
bodies  when  they  are  turned  upon  the  side  or  end, 
for  convenience  in  rubbing, 
and  to  prevent  the  bruising 
of  that  part  which  comes  in 
contact  with  the  rest  or  floor. 
It  consists  of  two  pieces  of 
board;  say,  one  foot  square, 
and  one-and-a-half  inches 
thick,  nailed  together,  as 
shown  in  the  engraving,  the  edge  of  the  upright 
piece  being  well  padded  and  covered  with  leather. 

Body  Stand. — For  resting  carriage  bodies  upon  when 
painting.  A  great  variety  of  stands  are  to  be  seen. 
Some  utilize  barrels,  boxes,  and  kegs,  while  others 
employ  the  patent  body  rests  or  jack,  this  is  a 
contrivance  for  sustaining  light  carriage  bodies, 
in  almost  any  position  while  being  painted  or  var- 
nished; this  "jack"  is  provided  with  an  eccentric 
clamp  which  "bites"  the  bottom  strip  of  a  light 
body — or  an  extra  strip  screwed  on — and  so  fitted 
with  a  segmental  gear  and  interlocking  pawls  that 
the  body  may  be  turned  to  suit  the  convenience  of 
the  workman.  It  may  be  also  used  in  painting 
wheels.    (See  also  Jack.) 

Body  Varnish.— A  superior  quality  of  copal  varnish, 
made  from  the  best  materials  from  formulas  which 
a  long  experience  and  the  most  careful  and  costly 
tests  have  proved  the  best.  Most  body  varnishes 
bear  a  name  which  distinguishes  the  qualit3T ;  as, 


BOILED  OIL. 


53 


"Wearing-  Body,"  "Medium  Drying  Body," 
"Hard  Drying-  Body,"  etc.  (See  Varnish.) 
Boiled  05L — Linseed  oil  (raw)  becomes  slowly  con- 
verted by  the  action  of  the  air  into  a  tough  semi- 
transparent  mass  ;  but  this  property  is  possessed 
in  a  far  higher  degree  by  the  so-called  boiled  oil, 
that  is  to  say — an  oil  which  has  been  brought  by 
the  action  of  heat  and  of  oxidizing  materials  into 
a  state  of  greater  activity,  in  fact — into  a  state  of 
incipient  slow  oxidation,  the  result  of  which  is  the 
formation  of  the  substance  termed  linoxine,  which 
in  many  of  its  properties  corresponds  to  caout- 
chouc. The  substances  with  which  linseed  oil  is 
boiled  are  litharge,  oxide  of  zinc,  and  peroxide  of 
manganese.  It  is  certainly  preferable  to  carry 
the  operation  of  boiling  upon  a  water  bath,  or  at 
least  with  vessels  provided  with  steam  jackets. 
The  oxides  are  employed  in  coarse  powders,  which 
are  suspended  in  a  linen  bag  in  the  oil.  In  prac- 
tice, 1  part  of  oxide  of  zinc  or  litharge  is  taken 
to  16  parts  of  raw  oil ;  and  of  the  manganese  1 
part  to  10  of  oil ;  the  oxides  become  partly  dis- 
solved in  the  oil,  while  they  aid  in  converting  the 
palmitine,  etc.  (not  linoleine),  into  plaster  (lead 
or  zinc  soap).  Boiled  linseed  oil  usually  contains 
from  2.5  to  3  per  cent  of  litharge  dissolved.  Nei- 
ther the  addition  of  sulphate  of  zinc,  nor  such  ab- 
surdly added  substances  as  onions,  bread  crust  or 
beet  root  have  any  result  whatever.  The  lower 
the  temperature  at  which  linseed  oil  is  boiled  the 
brighter  its  color.  Mulder  found  that  when  raw 
linseed  oil,  especially  if  old,  was  kept  from  12  to 
18  hours  at  a  temperature  of  100  degrees,  it  ac- 
quired the  property  of  boiled  oil.  Sometimes  after 
boiling,  linseed  oil  is  bleached  by  exposing  it  in 


54 


BONE-BLACK. 


shallow  trays  made  of  sheet-lead  and  covered  with 
sheets  of  glass  to  the  action  of  strong  summer 
sunlight. 

Bone- Black. — A  pigment  obtained  by  heating  animal 
bones  to  redness  in  a  retort  or  closed  vessel. 

It  is  deprived  of  the  phosphate  of  lime  with  which 
it  is  blended  by  the  action  of  hydrochloric  (muriatic) 
acid,  when  it  yields  one  of  the  most  valuable  forms 
of  animal  charcoal.  It  is  often  palmed  off  for  ivory- 
black  (q.  v.)  which  is  greatly  superior  to  it  in  color 
and  durabilty.  Many  know  this  pigment  under 
the  names  of  patent  black,  drop  black,  etc.  For 
animal  black  any  animal  matter  serves,  the  heat 
dissipating  the  oily  and  resinous  elements.  For 
bone-black,  the  bones  are  placed  in  a  crucible  and 
subjected  to  great  heat.  In  cooling,  the  gases  of 
heavy  oil,  mixed  with  tarry  matter  and  ammonia 
are  condensed.  Bone-black,  the  residue,  is  separ- 
ated by  dilute  hydrochloric  acicl.  Excellent  char- 
coal black  is  that  produced  by  inclosing  wood  in  a 
cast-iron  cylinder,  wholly  excluding  from  the 
action  of  the  air,  and  placing  it  over  a  strong  fire. 
The  cylinder  is  allowed  to  get  red-hot.  The  whole 
of  the  gaseous  ingredients  being  then  disengaged, 
the  fire  is  extinguished,  and  the  charcoal  allowed 
to  cool  in  the  cylinder.  The  woods  that  furnish 
the  best  charcoal  for  painters  are  the  beech  and 
vine,  the  former  yielding  a  black  of  a  bluish,  and 
the  latter  one  of  a  grayish  cast.  Wine  lees,  after 
being  calcined,  washed  several  times  in  boiling 
water,  and  ground  to  a  fine  powder,  yield  a  fine 
velvety  black,  which,  however,  is  chiefly  used  by 
copper-plate  painters.  Peach-stones  burned  in  a 
close  vessel,  jdeld  charcoal  which,  after  being 
ground,  may  be  successfully  used  for  that  kind  of 


BOTTLE  GREEN. 


55 


black  generally  known  by  the  name  of  raven  gray. 
A  very  pure  charcoal  is  also  made  by  exposing 
white  sugar  candy  in  a  earthenware  retort.  When 
charcoal,  obtained  from  any  of  these  sources,  is 
employed  in  priming,  it  should  be  mixed  with  a 
very  small  portion  of  white-lead  and  made  up  for 
use  with  drying  oils. 

The  best  of  all  blacks,  used  by  artists  on  canvas, 
is  made  from  ivory  shavings,  in  a  crucible  closely 
stopped,  and  afterwards  ground  very  fine.  It 
may  be  freed  from  every  possible  impurity  by  wash- 
ing it  in  muriatic  acid  or  weak  aqua  fortis,  and  is 
then  an  extremely  rich  and  intense  color ;  but 
being  costly,  it  is  not  employed  in  ordinary  work. 
The  water-color  called  China  ink,  is  merely  ivory- 
black  perfectly  pure,  mixed  with  a  solution. 
Bottle  Green  or  Yellow  Lake  Green-— A  very 
useful  and  at  this  time  a  very  fashionable  color 
for  gears  or  bodies.  It  is  produced  in  the  follow- 
ing manner  :  First  prepare  a  ground,  as  solidly 
as  possible,  i.  e.,  free  from  streaks  and  spots,  with 
color  made  of  lemon  chrome  yellow  and  black; 
the  proportions  cannot  be  definitely  stated,  and 
the  eye  of  the  workman  must  tell  the  moment  to 
stop  adding  one  ingredient  to  the  other,  owing  to 
the  varying  strength  of  the  pigments  used ;  how- 
ever, the  shade  of  green  best  suited  is  that  of 
bottle  glass.  The  chrome  yellow  and  black  both 
having  been  mixed  and  ground  separately  in 
japan,  there  will  be  no  trouble  experienced  in  add- 
ing one  to  the  other  until  the  desired  shade  is 
obtained.  This  being  done,  take  a  small  quantity 
of  Dutch  pink  and  Prussian  blue — ground  in  japan 
— and  mix  them  to  a  rich  shade  of  bottle  green. 
This  forms  the  color  proper.    The  groundwork 


56 


BREAK. 


of  yellow  and  black  being  smooth  and  well  dusted 
off,  apply  the  "  Dutch  pink  green"  smoothly  with 
a  camel's-hair  brush,  having  first  thinned  the 
paint  to  a  milk-like  consistency.  One  coat  should 
be  sufficient,  and  if  care  is  exercised,  the  surface 
will  be  in  good  order  to  receive  the  glazing. 

Having  at  hand  some  yellow  lake,  mix  it  with 
hard  drying  body  varnish — instead  of  japan,  and 
run  it  through  the  mill,  next  add  about  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  the  Dutch  pink  color  to  each 
pint  of  the  yellow  lake  glazing,  and  when  the  color 
on  the  job  is  dry,  dust  off,  and  lay  the  yellow  lake 
in  the  same  manner  as  if  it  was  color-and- varnish. 
This  gives  a 
rich,  deep 
--green  and  one 
that  can  be 
made    in  no 

other    way.  ^         „  «»«—,—, 

~  ;  ,  Fig.  4.— Brick  Header. 

Care  should 

be  taken  that  no  yellow,  such  as  lemon  or  orange 
chrome  be  mixed  with  the  Dutch  pink  or  the  yel- 
low lake,  but  a  drop  of  red,  such  as  vermilion  or 
carmine  will  improve  it  by  giving  it  a  warmer  hue. 

The  tone  of  the  color  may  be  changed  so  as  to 
be  suitable  for  both  body  and  gears.  By  simply 
glazing  the  color  proper  with  pure  yellow  lake 
the  tone  will  be  more  yellow.  By  adding  a  drop 
or  two  of  blue  to  the  glazing  a  bluish  green  will 
result ;  and  a  little  vermilion  and  blue  will  give  it 
an  olive  hue. 

Break. — An  ornament  put  in  parts  of  a  long  line  or 
stripe  to  break  up  or  destroy  the  unpleasant  ap- 
pearance of  an  unbroken  line,  or  the  monotony  of 
a  continuous  stripe. 


BROKEN  COLORS. 


57 


Brick  Header. — A  brush  shaped,  as  shown  in  en- 
graving", of  short,  stiff  bristles,  used  for  putting 
the  lines  on  brick  and  stone  work. 

Brick  Red- — The  color  of  bricks.  Venetian  red 
used  alone  makes  a  very  fair  brick  color,  although 
some  prefer  to  darken  it  with  Spanish  brown  or  to 
lighten  it  with  orange  mineral. 

Bridle. — An  extra  binding  of  cord  or  other  material 
put  upon  a  new  brush  to  confine  the  bristles  until 
they  are  partly  worn  down.    (See  Brushes.) 

Bringing  Out  Grain. — The  application  of  several 
coats  of  varnish,  oil  or  other  liquid  in  order  to 
cause  the  grain  of  the  wood  to  appear  plainly. 
Permanent  wood  filling  (q.  v.)  is  an  excellent  coat- 
ing for  hard-wood  to  bring-  out  the  grain,  or  for 
staining  soft-wood  to  imitate  hard-wood.  One 
application  of  this  liquid  is  applied  with  a  brush 
and  then  rubbed  over  with  rags  to  work  it  into 
the  wood,  then,  if  a  dead  oil  finish  is  desired,  a 
second  coat  is  applied — after  48  hours  for  drying 
— in  the  same  manner.  If  a  gloss  is  desired,  one 
or  two  coats  of  varnish  may  be  put  on  instead  of  a 
second  coat  of  P.  W.  F. 

Broad  Stripe. — A  stripe  over  one-half  inch  in  width. 
(See  Striping.) 

Brocades. — Large  and  rich,  but  somewhat  erratic, 
damask  patterns  of  oriental  origin. 

Broken  Colors. — Pure  colors  mixed  with  black 
from  the  lightest  to  the  deepest  tone.  For  ex- 
ample, if  blue  be  mixed  with  red  yellow,  a  little 
black  is  produced  which  reduces  or  breaks  the 
orange. 


:»8 


BRONZE. 


Bronze. — A  metallic  powder,  made  by  reducing- the 
metals,  gold,  silver,  copper,  etc.,  to  powder  by 
grinding1  upon  a  marble  slab  while  held  in  a  pasty 
mass,  by  the  addition  of  honey.  When  sufficient- 
ly levigated  the  honey  is  washed  away  with  water 
and  the  sediment,  when  dried,  becomes  the  bronze 
of  commerce.  There  are  many  qualities  and 
shades  of  color.  The  best  way  to  use  bronze  is  to 
put  it  on  dry  over  gilding  size  (q.  v.)  using  a  piece 
of  chamois  skin  or  plush  as  a  rubber  ;  this  gives  a 
metallic  lustre  not  obtained  when  the  bronze  is 
mixed  as  paint.  Bronze,  however,  does  not  equal 
foliated  metals  in  reflecting  light,  and  consequent- 
ly is  far  less  brilliant  than  gold,  silver  or  copper 
leaf.  Bronze  may  be  obtained  of  the  following 
colors :  white,  silver,  flesh,  light  and  dark  gold, 
rich  gold,  lemon,  orange,  fire,  copper,  carmine, 
crimson,  lilac,  violet,  brown,  and  light  and  dark 
greens  ;  and  for  hurried  or  cheap  ornamenting 
the  painter  may  manipulate  them  sometimes  to 
good  advantage.  The  universal  complaint 
against  gold  bronze  is  that  it  soon  blackens  or 
changes  color.  The  remedy,  in  so  far  as  a  remedy 
can  be  given — consists  in  buying  pure  gold  bronze, 
made  from  gold  leaf.  Inferior  gold  bronze  is 
made  from  leaf  that  contains  silver  or  copper,  and 
when  these  metals  are  present  they  soon  oxydize 
or  blacken.  The  writer  has  ever  had  success  in 
the  use  of  gold  bronze  by  following  these  simple 
directions,  viz.  :  First  be  certain  that  the  gilding 
size  is  in  a  proper  condition,  i.  e.,  slightly  "  tacky," 
for  if  otherwise  the  bronze  will  be  "drowned  "  or 
sink  into  the  size  and  be  partially  covered  by  it. 
Then  when  the  bronze  has  been  applied  and  well 
rubbed  over  with  chamois  skin,  apply  a  very  thin 


BRONZE. 


59 


coating-  of  French  shellac  varnish  (q.  v.)  with  a 
camel's-hair  pencil.  This  coating*  will  dry  in  a  few 
minutes  and  its  principle  purpose  is  to  protect  the 
metallic  powder  from  the  acid  which  is  present  in 
finishing  varnishes  and  which  is  almost  certain 
to  form  verdigris  when  put  directly  upon  the 
bronze,  and  this  tends  to  blacken  it.  We  have 
seen  some  beautiful  work  clone  in  scrolling  with 
colored  bronzes,  proving-  that  they  may  in  skillful 
hands  be  made  to  produce  very  pleasing-  color 
effects. 

Application  of  Bronze  Colors. — Bronze  powders, 
whatever  the  colors  they  have  been  made  to  as- 
sume by  heat  or  acids,  may  be  applied  so  thinly 
as  to  be  partly  transparent,  and  so  very  attrac- 
tive effects  are  induced  by  the  use  of  a  colored 
-  varnish,  or  wash,  to  the  surface  before  applying- 
the  powder.  Thus  different  shades  of  one  color 
may  be  produced  by  mixing  with  the  alcoholic  so- 
lution that  prepares  the  surface  for  the  reception 
of  the  powder,  certain  proportions  of  ivory-black, 
burnt  umber,  or  other  volatile  pigments,  which 
dry  readily,  but  leave  their  stain.  The  most 
pleasing  effects  of  bronzing  are  produced  by  the 
manipulations  of  the  artist  workman.  Applying 
it  as  taste  demands,  he  employs  the  softest  of 
brushes.  Where  the  original  tint  is  to  remain, 
the  surface  is  wiped  with  silk  floss,  or  rabbit's 
foot.  Where  prominences  should  show  bodily, 
the  protuberances  are  carefully  burnished  with 
queerly  shaped  implements  of  agate,  flint,  or  of 
hardened  steel  or  blood-stone,  these  hand  tools  be- 
ing ground  to  curves,  angles,  and  edges  to  fit  the 
sinuosities  of  the  work.  They  require  practice 
and  use,  as  well  as  taste,  in  working. 


GO 


BRONZE  GREEN. 


Chocolate  Color  Bronzing.— For  producing  choc- 
olate bronze  effects  on  chandeliers,  gas-fittings 
and  other  metal  surfaces,  the  following-  method 
may  be  adopted  :  The  body  pigment  is  to  be  made 
up  of  white  lead  ground  in  varnish,  thinned  with 
turpentine  and  tinted  with  a  mixture  of  Spanish 
brown,  Venetian  red  and  vegetable  black.  The 
proportions  of  these  pigments  must  be  regulated 
by  trial  and  taste,  the  red  predominating  if  a 
bright  chocolate  is  required  or  the  black  if  a  dull, 
deep  tint  is  desired.  This  must  be  put  on  a  sur- 
face free  from  grease,  oil,  dust,  dirt,  rust  or  patch- 
es of  old  paint.  When  dry,  go  over  the  surface 
lightly  with  a  coat  of  gold  size  and  when  this  has 
become  tacky,  dust  on  the  bronze  powder  with  a 
pad  of  cotton  wool  evenly  on  the  surface,  and  then 
cover  the  article  to  protect  it  from  the  dust. 
When  quite  dry  sweep  off  loose  particles  of  bronze 
powder  with  a  feather  broom  and  coat  the  whole 
with  copal  varnish.  The  article  is  finally  heated 
in  the  oven  of  a  stove,  the  temperature  not  exceed- 
ing 300°  Fahrenheit.  The  same  process,  without 
the  heating,  will  do  for  wood. 

Bronze  Green. —  A  mixture  of  five  parts  chrome 
green,  two  parts  umber,  and  one  part  of  black. 
This  color  is  excellent  for  iron  railings,  and  other 
such  work,  where  gold  bronze  can  be  used  advan- 
tageously in  lightening  up  the  prominent  parts  to 
make  it  ornamental. 

Brought-Forward. — Plain  painting  prepared  for 
decoration. 

Brown. — Most  people  are  mistaken  in  the  classifica- 
tion of  browns,  and  many  colors  which  rightly 
claim  the  name  of  brown  are  known  by  another 


BROWN. 


01 


name,  while  there  are  many  colors  called  brown, 
which  are  simply  dark  red  and  maroon  colors. 
Brown,  rightly  speaking",  is  a  warm  broken  color, 
of  which  yellow  is  one  of  its  principal  constituents, 
and  under  which  classification  we  find  umber, 
sienna,  and  several  other  earthy  pigments.  Red 
and  black  mixed  form  what  many  call  brown; 
but  until  the  black  predominates  in  the  mixture, 
or  a  little  yellow  is  added,  it  is  really  a  dark  red 
and  not  a  brown.  Spanish  brown  is  not,  correct- 
ly speaking-,  a  brown,  but  a  dark  red.  Many 
varieties  of  dark  red  are  formed  by  the  painter, 
and  called  brown,  which  lead  us  astray  sometimes 
in  our  comprehension  of  what  brown  really  is, 
and  it  is  quite  impossible  to  form  a  correct  idea  of 
the  color  by  its  name.  We  may  class  broivn 
under  two  divisions;  first,  those  which  rightly 
come  under  that,  as  umber,  Vandyke  brown, 
manganese  brown,  cappagh  brown,  asphaltum, 
and  all  grades  descending-  from  black  to  olive; 
and  second,  those  which  are  called  brown  by  the 
painters,  but  which  do  not  properly  belong-  under 
that  term,  as  defined  by  scientists.  Umber  and 
sienna,  both  the  " burnt"  and  "raw,"  are  useful, 
and  often  called  into  requisition  in  matching 
shades  of  color.  The  browns  made  with  umber 
for  a  base  and  called  "umber  browns,"  are  in 
demand  on  fine  carriag-e  panels  or  g-ears;  and 
these  glazed  with  yellow  lake  give  a  variety  of 
shades,  the  yellow  lake  giving  a  great  depth  of 
color,  and  a  yellowish  hue,  while  the  same  ground 
glazed  with  lake  or  carmine  (light^)  gives  a 
reddish  tint  of  great  beauty.  By  adding  one  part 
of  lemon  yellow  to  three  parts  of  burnt  umber  a 
beautiful  color  is  formed  called  "olive  brown." 


BROWN  JAPAN. 


This  is  one  of  the  yellowish  browns  verging1  on  to 
olive,  and  the  shade  may  be  varied  by  a  change 
in  the  proportion  of  ingredients.  Japan  brown  is 
a  beautiful  color  when  properly  mixed,  and  is 
made  by  adding  a  very  little  Indian  red  (q.  v.)  to 
black  japan.  This  method  of  forming  a  brown  is 
an  excellent  one  where  old  work  is  to  be  re-colored, 
the  japan  laying  over  an  old  varnish  surface 
without  the  danger  of  cracking  so  often  exper- 
ienced. A  color  known  as  "  Bismarck  brown " 
may  be  made  as  follows :  First  make  a  ground 
of  two  parts  burnt  umber  to  one  of  white  lead ; 
put  over  this  two  coats  of  burnt  sienna,  and  glaze 
with  a  mixture  of  one  ounce  carmine,  one-half 
ounce  of  English  crimson  lake,  and  one  ounce  of 
best  gold  bronze.  When  a  light  color  is  required 
use  a  ground  of  English  vermilion  (q.v.)  and  glaze 
as  above. 

Brown  Japan. — A  composition  of  shellac  gum  and 
oil,  used  as  a  drier  in  the  mixing  of  pa  ints.  Some 
painters  use  the  simple  word  Japan  to  express  the 
above,  while  others  (the  manufacturers)  give  it  the 
name  of  "  Crown  Coach  Japan." 

There  is  a  great  difference  in  japans  put  upon 
the  market,  and  in  order  to  ensure  good  work,  care 
should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  this  useful 
article.  A  good  japan  should  assimilate  with 
raw  linseed  oil,  otherwise  the  paint  containing  the 
two  ingredients  will  be  apt  to  thicken  up  or  curdle 
before  it  can  be  applied. 

The  best  way  to  test  japan  is  to  add  a  few  drops 
to  a  small  quantit}^  of  raw  linseed  oil,  stirring  the 
mass  for  a  moment,  and  thus  ascertain  whether  a 
smooth  liquid  is  formed,  or  a  curdled  mass  the 


BRUSHES. 


03 


result.  The  latter  being-  sufficent  proof  to  con- 
demn it. 

Brown  Pink. — A  vegetable  lake,  made  from  French 
berries  and  dye  woods.  It  is  a  fine,  rich,  trans- 
parent color,  but  inclines  more  toward  a  citrine,  or 
an  orange  color,  than  to  a  brown.  It  is  a  very 
fugitive  color. 

Brown  Stain. — For  staining*  woods  a  brown  color, 
sulphuric  acid,  more  or  less  diluted,  according*  to 
the  intensity  of  the  color  to  be  produced,  is  applied 
with  a  rag*  or  brush  to  the  wood,  previously  clean- 
ed and  dried.  A  lighter  or  darker  brown  stain  is 
obtained,  according  to  the  strength  of  the  acid. 
When  the  acid  has  acted  sufficiently,  its  further 
action  is  arrested  by  the  application  of  ammonia. 
Tincture  of  iodine  yields  a  fine  brown  coloration, 
which,  however,  is  not  permanent  unless  the  air 
is  excluded  by  a  thick  coating  of  varnish.  Nitric 
acid  gives  a  fine  permanent  yellow,  which  is  con- 
verted into  a  dark  brown  by  the  subsequent 
application  of  tincture  of  iodine. 

Brunswick  Green. — A  pigment  obtained  by  expos- 
ing* metallic  copper  to  the  action  of  muriate  of 
ammonia.  It  is  a  chloride  and  oxide  of  copper. 
It  is  also  generated  by  the  action  of  sea-water 
upon  copper,  and  it  may  be  said  to  be,  virtually, 
verdigris. 

Brushes. — Are  made  of  bristles  and  of  hair,  bound 
to  a  handle  by  cord,  wire,  metal  stamped  to 
imitate  wire,  tin,  copper  and  brass.  The  oval 
and  round  paint  and  varnish  brushes  are  general- 
ly bound  with  cord,  wire  or  its  imitations,  and 
copper  and  brass.    The  flat  bristle,  fitch,  badger, 


BRUSHES. 


bear  and  camel's-hair  brushes  with  tin.  The 
ordinary  paint  brushes  contain  the  inferior  or 
coarser  grades  of  bristles ;  the  varnish  brushes 
the  selected  or  finer  qualities.  The  oval  and 
round  brushes  are  numbered  by  the  brush-maker 
to  designate  sizes,  from  No.  6  down  to  No.  1, 
thence  from  one  0  (naught)  to  6  naughts  (thus, 
000,000).  For  carriage  painting  the  sizes  between 
one  and  four  naughts  are  considered  best — the 
smaller  ones  may  be  used,  but  it  is  advantageous  to 
use  as  large  a  brush  as  possible  on  most  of  the 
work.  Small  brushes  called  "tools"  are  num- 
bered from  1  up  to  10,  the  latter  being  the  largest. 
Brushes  are  generally  used  in  sets,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, in  painting  a  body  or  gear,  we  would  use 
a  large  brush  for  laying  the  paint,  and  a  small 
"  tool  "  for  "cleaning  up  "  around  the  moldings, 
nuts  and  bolt-heads.  It  would  be  an  almost  endless 
task  to  illustrate  and  describe  all  of  the  many 
varieties  of  paint  and  varnish  brushes,  and  a  few 
of  the  principal  ones  only  will  receive  attention 
here.  Russia  is  the  great  bristle  growing  country, 
and  her  exports  reach  as  high  as  5,000  tons  of  this 
commodity  every  year.  Hogs  in  countless  herds 
roam  the  deep  Muscovite  forests,  where  the  oak, 
the  pine,  the  beech,  larch  and  other  nut  bearing 
trees  cover  the  ground  with  acorns  and  nuts  to 
the  depth  of  a  foot  or  more.  But  these  swine  are 
not  all  of  value  for  their  bristles.  The  perfect 
bristle  is  found  only  on  a  special  race,  and  that 
race  fattened  in  a  certain  way.  On  the  frontiers 
of  civilization  all  over  the  Muscovite  territory  are 
the  government  tallow  factories,  where  animals 
reared  too  far  from  the  habitation  of  men  to  be 
consumed  for  human  food  are  boiled  down  for  the 


BRUSHES. 


G5 


sake  of  their  fat.  The  swine  are  fed  on  the  refuse 
of  these  tallow  factories  at  certain  seasons,  and 
become  in  prime  condition  after  a  few  months 
feeding-.  It  is  from  these  animals  that  the  bristles 
of  commerce  mainly  come.  When  the  swine  are 
fattened,  and  their  bristles  in  fine  order,  they  are 
driven  in  kraals  so  thickly  that  they  can  scarcely 
stand — irritated  and  goaded  by  the  herdsmen  till 
they  are  sullen  with  rage — kicking  striving, 
struggling  and  scrambling  together  in  feverish 
rage,  they  are  seized  one  by  one,  by  the  kak  koffs 
— a  class  of  laborers  educated  to  plucking  swine — 
and  their  bristles  pulled  out  by  the  roots.  The 
perspiration  into  which  the  poor  creatures  are 
thrown  by  their  exercise  causes  their  bristles  to 
yield  easily.  The  process  is  pleasant  neither  to 
the  eye  nor  the  ear.  The  hog"  strenously  resists 
with  loud  outcries,  and  vehement  opposition.  It 
does  no  good.  Once  seized,  he  is  instantly  divest- 
ed of  his  clothing"  and  then  immediately  released, 
g'oes  grunting  off  to  the  woods. 

The  so-called  f<  French  bristles"  are  principally 
from  Russia  stock,  cleaned  and  bleached  to  render 
them  white  and  exceedingly  elastic,  yet  soft  as 
an  infant's  hair.  From  these  are  made  the  fine 
pencils  of  the  artist.  Length,  elasticity,  firmness 
and  color  are  elements  that  constitute  their  excel- 
lence, and  the  bristle  expert  can  readily  assort 
them  for  their  special  uses. 

The  ordinary  paint  brush  for  g-eneral  work  is 
made  either  from  selected  Russia  bristles,  or 
with  an  inferior  gray  centre,  inclosed  by  fine  white 
bristles.  Carriage  and  wagon  painters  usually 
select  the  best,  i.  e.,  Russia  bristles,  and  the  size 
known  as  four  naught  (0000)  is  used  for  rough-stuff 


BRUSHES. 


and  foundation  coats,  while  the  house  painter  would 
choose  a  larger  one  possibly.  A  new  brush  of  this 
description  will  not  work  well  unless  "  bridled," 
*.  e.,  having-  an  extra  binding-  added,  and  this  may 
be  done  in  several  ways. 


FIG>  5. —The  Ordinary  Paint  Brush,  Four  Naught  Size. 

1.  By  winding  a  strong  cord  around  the  bristles 
to  about  the  middle  of  the  same,  or,  as  far  from  the 
original  binding  as  desired.  2.  By  covering  a  por- 
tion of  the  bristles  with  leather  stitched  on  tightly. 
3.  By  wrapping  a  piece  of  muslin  around  the 
brush,  then  tying  a  cord  at  the  centre  of  the  bris- 
tles turn  the  muslin  back  and  tie  it  securely  to 


Fig.  6.— Badger-Hair  Varnish  Brush. 


the  handle.  4.  By  using  the  patent  metallic  band 
or  binder,  and  by  other  means,  the  object  being 
to  shorten  the  exposed  bristles  until  the  brush  is 
partly  worn  down,  when  the  extra  binding  may 
be  removed. 


BRUSHES. 


67 


Badger-Hair  Varnish  Brush. — The  badger-hair 
brush  is  next  in  importance.  It  is  well  bound  in 
tin,  hair  set  in  glue,  handle  nicely  japanned,  and 
chisel-pointed.  For  varnishing"  small  panels  or 
parts  of  a  body  it  has  no  equal.  The  best  badger- 
hair  is  imported  on  the  skin  from  Germany  and 
Russia. 

Camel's-Hair  Brush. — For  laying  fine  color  no 
better  brush  can  be  had  than  the  camel's-hair 
brush — called  by  some  "mottlers,"  by  others 
"  blenders,"  and  again  by  others  "  spalters,"  each 
term,  however,  is  foreign  to  the  American 
carriage  painter,  and  the  "  Camel's-hair  brush"  is 


Fig.  7.— Camel's-Hair  Brush. 


by  far  the  most  appropriate,  and  most  commonly 
used.  The  hair  used  in  these  brushes,  however, 
is  not  all  taken  from  the  camel,  much  of  it  being 
from  the  tail  of  the  Russian  brown  squirrel.  The 
hair  is  first  cut  from  the  tail  with  scissors,  the 
wool  or  under  fur  combed  out,  and  then  tied  in 
bunches  ready  to  be  straightened.  This  requires 
skill  and  practice.  The  hair  is  placed  in  metal 
cups  having  a  thick,  loaded  bottom,  and  by  a 
quick  motion  of  the  hand,  drummed  on  the  bench 
for  a  considerable  time,  until  the  pointed  or  fine 
ends  are  all  even  with  each  other.  In  the  process 
of  cutting  and  cupping  the  lengths  are  kept  sepa- 


68 


BRUSHES. 


rate  as  far  as  possible.  The  hair  is  now  ready  for 
the  brush-maker,  who  cups  and  combs  it  out, 
weig-hs  the  quantity  required,  and  places  it  into 
the  ferrules  or  tin  bands.  It  requires  skill  to 
handle  the  short,  slippery  hair  and  keep  it  in 
shape.  It  is  not  many  years,  when  work  of  this 
kind  was  all  done  abroad.  Now,  it  is  claimed  by 
experts  that  the  American  manufacture  of  most 
kinds  of  brushes  excels  the  foreign  g-oods.  The 
chiseled  camel's-hair  brush,  as  made  by  Miles 


Fig.  8.— Gilder's  Camel's  Hair  Tip. 

Bros.  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  is  something-  entirely 
new,  and  is  certainly  a  very  fine  brush  and  well 
calculated  to  do  smooth,  particular  work.  An- 
other class  of  these  g-oods  made  by  the  same 
firm,  are  made  extra  thick  and  from  picked 
camel's-hair,  the  binding  of  brass  having-  its  edg-e 
turned  under,  which  gives  additional  security  to 
the  hair  and  prevents  cutting-  the  hair  on  the  edg-e 
of  the  binding-,  which  too  frequently  happens. 
Camel's-Haik  Tool.  —  Small  brushes,  called 
tools,  made  of  camel's-hair  are  used  for  black- 


BRUSHES. 


69 


ing  irons,  lacquering-,  and  other  work  of  like 
nature.  The  next  brush  to  be  considered  is  the 
camel's-hair  duster,  a  tool  used  mostly  by  gilders 
in  removing  the  loose  gold  leaf  from  their  work 
when  gilding.  These  are  bound  in  split  quill  and 
fastened  with  wire.  The  next  to  claim  attention 
is  the  gilder's  camel's-hair  tip.  This  is  made  by 
laying-  a  thin  layer  of  hair  between  two  pieces  of 
card-board  and  gluing  the  whole  firmly  together, 
as  shown,  it  is  used  to  lift  and  carry  to  the  work 
the  pieces  of  gold  leaf.    A  slight  moisture  or 


Fig.  9.— Wall  Brush. 


stickiness  is  given  the  hairs  by  simply  passing- 
them  over  the  face  or  hair  of  the  head,  and  then 
the  g-old  leaf  can  be  easily  lifted  from  the  cushion 
on  which  it  has  been  cut  and  dexterously  laid  upon 
the  gilding  size. 

For  painting  walls  a  large  flat  bristle  brush  is 
used — see  cut — made  of  all  white  bristles,  bound 
in  copper,  brass  or  galvanized  iron.  It  has 
always  been  a  difficult  task  to  make  a  wall  brush 
to  stand  the  hard  usage  it  generally  receives, 
but  now  that  machinery  of  the  most  approved 
pattern  has  been  introduced  in  the  brush  factory 
these  brushes  are  made  under  warrantee, 


70  BRUSHES. 

Blenders,  mottlers,  stipplers,  top  grainers, 
and  several  other  classes  of  brushes  together, 
with  pencils,  etc.,  will  be  noticed  under  their 
respective  heads. 


Fig.  10.— The  Flat,  Bristle  Varnish  Brush. 


Flat  Bristle  Varnish  Brush.— These  are  made  of 
the  best  white  bristles,  set  with  glue,  doubled 
nailed,  soft  yet  very  elastic,  with  chiseled  points. 
They  are  considered  the  best  brush  made  by  many 
of  the  best  varnishers.  They  are  put  up  in  sets, 
as  shown  in  the  engraving-,  from  one  inch  in  width 
to  three  inches,  the  price  being-  about  $3.50  per 
set.  These  brushes,  if  used  with  care,  will  wear  a 
long  time. 


Fig.  11.— A  Flat,  Chiseled  Brush. 


Flat,  Chiseled  Brush.— Flat  paint  brushes  are 
preferred  by  some.  These  are  chiseled  or  ground 
off  on  the  sides  to  form  a  thin  edge.  They  are 
bound  in  tin  or  rubber  and  are  graded  in  size  by 
their  width. 


BRUSHES. 


71 


Flattened  Round  Tool  (Chiseled). — This  is 
superior  to  the  "sash  tool"  for  cleaning"  between 
the  spokes,  and  for  finishing  around  the  various 
parts  of  the  gear.  This  brush  is  tin-bound,  well 
riveted,  and  the  bristles  are  set  in  giue,  which  is 
insoluble  in  turpentine  and  oil,  and  therefore  supe- 


Fig.  12.— Flattened  Round  Tool,  Chiseled. 


rior  to  the  cement  used  by  some  brush-makers. 
The  size  best  suited  for  the  carriage  painter  is 
about  one  and  a  quarter  inches  in  width.  This  is 
also  an  excellent  tool  for  varnishing,  in  trimming 
up  around  moldings,  etc. 
Fitch-Hair  Brush. — This  brush  was  formerly  in 
extensive  demand  as  a  varnish  brush  but  of  late 
years  the  badger  has  supplanted  it,  owing,  in  a 
degree,  to  the  numerous  imitations  in  the  market, 


Fig.  13.— Sash  Tool. 


and  also  to  the  liability  of  the  rotting  away  or 
breaking  of  the  hairs  when  in  use.  The  hair  is 
mostly  from  the  tail  of  the  skunk. 
Sash  Tool. — A  sash  tool,  or  small  brush,  shaped  as 
shown  in  cut,  is  necessary  as  an  auxiliary  to  the 
large  brush,  for  cleaning  up  in  corners,  etc. 


BRUSH-KEEPER. 


Oval  Varnish  or  Paint  Brush. — As  the  under 
parts  of  a  carriage  are  not  rubbed  with  lump 
pumice-stone,  the  same  as  the  body,  the  paint 
must  be  applied  with  greater  care,  and  the  000 
oval  brush  will  work  best,  laying  the  paint  smooth- 
ly and  leaving  but  few,  if  any,  brush  marks.  The 
"  chiseled'7  brush  should  always  have  preference 
over  a  partly  worn  one,  as  the  bristles  are  as  a 
rule  softer  upon  their  extreme  ends.  The  com- 
panion of  the  oval  brush  is  the  flattened  tool  here 
shown. 


Fig.  14.— Oval  Varnish  Brush,  Chiseled. 


Brush-Keeper. — There  are  several  plans  in  use  for 
keeping  brushes  in  good  condition,  a  few  of  these 
we  illustrate.  Many  varnish  rooms  are  provided 
with  a  large  tin  box  having  two  compartments, 
one  for  the  best,  the  other  for  common  varnish 
brushes  ;  but  this  plan  is  not  a  good  one,  for  the 
large  quantity  of  varnish  required — provided  the 
brushes  are  suspended  in  varnish — presents  a  large 
surface  to  the  air  when  the  box  is  opened,  and  the 
varnish  soon  becomes  thickened  and  useless. 
Small  cans  are  the  best.  The  brushes  are  sus- 
pended from  wires  which  run  through  a  hole  in 
the  handles,  and  the  brushes  are  allowed  to  hang 
just  deep  enough  to  cover  one-half  the  binding. 


BRUSH-KEEPER. 


73 


Varnish,  as  a  general  thing",  is  delicate  in  its 
choice  of  company;  a  little  turpentine,  a  little  oil, 
or  a  little  of  anything,  except  its  own  kind,  will 
make  it  liable  to  pit,  or  crawl,  or  flake,  or  cut  up 
some  caper,  and  that  dangerous  little  is  frequently 
supplied  by  putting  into  the  varnish-cup  a  brush 
fresh  from  a  bath  of  another  liquid. 

In  an  experience  of  thirty  years,  the  writer  has 
found  no  liquid  so  well  adapted  for  filling  the 
brush-keeper,  as  the  best  finishing  varnish  made 


Fig.  15.— Device  for  Preserv-  Fig.  16.— Another  Method 
ing  Paint  Brushes.  of  Preserving  Brushes. 

without  driers  (expressly  for  the  purpose).  This 
material  is  not  in  the  market  and  to  procure  it, 
one  must  order  it  from  a  varnish-maker.  Such 
a  liquid  will  last  for  years  without  skining  over, 
if  care  is  taken  to  wipe  out  the  varnish  from  the 
brush  before  suspending  it  in  the  keeper. 

For  keeping  paint  brushes,  it  is  only  necessary 
to  suspend  them  in  water.  A  good  plan  being  to 
drive  nails  through  the  staves  of  a  tub  or  pail  on 
which  to  affix  the  brushes.  The  water  should  be 
allowed  to  just  cover  the  bristles  or  hair,  for  if  it 


74 


BUFF  COLOR. 


covered  the  binding-,  the  parts  swell  and  burst  the 
binding". 

Buff  Color. — A  color  made  by  a  mixture  of  white, 
yellow  and  red  pigments. 

Burgundy  Lake. — A  name  given  to  a  preparation 
of  lake  color  which  has  the  muddy  or  dirty  red 
hue  of  Burgundy  wine.  It  may  be  made  by  add- 
ing asphaltum  to  any  bright  lake. 

Burning  Off. — When  it  is  desired  to  remove  old 
paint  from  any  surface,  in  order  to  re-paint,  burn- 
ing off  is  resorted  to  where  no  better  means  are 
at  hand.  This  is  done  in  several  ways;  one  of 
which  is  to  heat  a  large  block  or  bar  of  iron  to  a 
red  heat,  then,  holding  it  a  few  inches  from  the 
paint,  the  latter  will  rise  in  blisters  and  soften  so 
that  it  may  be  easily  scraped  from  the  surface. 
Another  plan  is  to  use  a  furnace  made  of  sheet 
iron,  and  so  formed  that  its  front  can  be  present- 
ed to  all  parts  of  the  work  in  hand,  such  as  sharp 
corners,  etc.  Another  plan  is  to  employ  a  rubber 
hose  from  a  gas-jet,  a  burner  being  fitted  to  the 
end  of  the  hose,  and  this  has  been  improved  upon 
by  an  inventive  Yankee,  in  making  a  burner 
which  admits  to  the  flame  atmospheric  air,  giving 
an  increased  degree  of  heat  with  the  same  amount 
of  gas.  Lamps  of  various  shapes  and  kinds  have 
been  in  use,  some  burning  alcohol,  some  gasoline, 
all  very  good  where  gas  and  better  means  for  get- 
ting heat  to  the  paint  are  not  at  hand. 

Burnishing. — The  gloss  or  lustre  of  a  metallic  sur- 
face, as  of  gold  leaf,  made  by  rubbing  it  with  a 
smooth  hard  substance,  such  as  a  dog's  tooth 
fitted  into  a  handle,  or  a  piece  of  agate,  and  other 
hard  stones.  When  burnishing  gold  leaf,  a  piece  of 


BURNT  UMBER. 


75 


India  paper  is  put  between  the  metal  and  burnish- 
ing tool  to  prevent  tearing  it  from  the  surface. 
Frame  gilders  are  the  principal  burnishers  of 
gold  leaf,  it  being  scarcely  ever  thought  of  in  the 
carriage  shop. 
Burnt  Carmine- —Madder  carmine  or  cochineal 
carmine  partially  charred  by  fire  until  it  assumes 
a  rich  purple  hue.  Used  principally  by  protrait 
painters  for  drapery,  etc. 

Burnt  Sienna. — Crude  or  raw  sienna  heated  to  a 
red  heat  acquires  a  deep  reddish  brown  hue,  and 
is  known  as  burnt  sienna.  It  is  in  great  demand 
in  the  paint  shop,  being  useful  as  a  color  by  itself 
or  mixed  with  other  pigments,  and  also  for  imitat- 
ing* the  grain  of  woods.  '  It  makes  a  beautiful 
tint  with  white,  and  for  striping  on  fine  work  it  is 
used  extensively.  It  is  a  rich  semi-transparent 
brown  orange,  and  when  properly  mixed  and  ap- 
plied it  is  a  very  durable  color. 

Burnt  Umber. — Umber  is  a  natural  ochre  abound- 
ing with  decayed  vegetable  matter,  of  the  nature 
of  peat. 

This  pigment  when  burnt  or  roasted  gives  a 
beautiful  dark  brown  shade,  frequently  seen  on 
carriage  panels.  It  is  a  very  durable  color,  and 
when  a  trifling  amount  of  red  and  black  are  added 
to  it  it  is  called  umber  brown,  a  favorite  color  in 
some  localities.  Umber  is  a  natural  drier,  hold- 
ing in  its  parts  a  large  share  of  manganese,  and  it 
will  therefore  dry  well,  though  mixed  with  a  larg- 
er share  of  oil  than  almost  any  other  pigment. 
However,  this  addition  should  be  made  judicious- 
ly. Burnt  umber  being  semi-transparent  the 
ground  should  be  a  similar  but  darker  color,  as 


BURNT  VERDIGRIS. 

Indian  red,  lamp-black  and  a  little  yellow.  It  is 
an  excellent  stain  for  pine  wood  to  make  a  black- 
walnut  color  ;  simply  wet  the  pigment  with  water, 
or,  better,  with  old  ale,  and  rub  it  over  the  wood, 
let  dry,  then  varnish  over  it. 

Burnt  Verdigris. — Verdigris  roasted  until  it  assumes 
an  olive  shade.  Many  of  the  greens  may  thus  be 
changed  in  hue  by  heating  them  on  a  shovel  over 
the  fire. 


c 


Cadmium  Red. — A  pigment  which  approaches  an 
orange  scarlet  color — an  artist's  color. 

Cadmium  Yellow. — A  pigment  made  by  passing  a 
stream  of  sulphurated  hydrogen  through  a  solu- 
tion of  nitrate  or  sulphate  of  cadmium.  It  is  a 
warm,  yellow  pigment,  which  passes  readily  into 
tints  with  white  lead,  appears  to  endure  light  and 
remains  unchanged  in  impure  air.  The  metal 
cadmium  being  hitherto  scarce,  it  has  been  but 
little  employed  in  the  arts,  except  in  water  colors. 

Camel's-Hair. — Hair  from  the  animal  of  that  name, 
used  for  making  brushes  and  fine  pencils.  (See 
Brushes.) 

Canada  Balsam. — A  kind  of  turpentine  obtained 
from  the  Balm  of  Gilead  Fir,  a  native  of  Canada 
and  the  upper  part  of  the  United  States.  It  is  a 
transparent  liquid,  almost  colorless,  with  an  agree- 
able odor  and  an  acrid  taste.  It  pours  readily  out 
of  a  vessel  or  bottle  and  shortly  dries  up  and  be- 
comes solid .  When  fresh  it  is  of  the  consistence 
of  thin  honey.  It  is  used  as  an  ingredient  in  var- 
nishes, in  mounting  objects  for  the  microscope, 
etc.  To  make  a  varnish  for  drawings,  prints, 
maps,  etc.,  take  Canada  balsam  one  ounce  ;  spirits 
of  turpentine  two  ounces ;  mix  together.  The 
drawing  should  first  be  put  upon  a  stretcher  and 


CANARY  COLOR. 


sized  with  a  thin  solution  of  isinglass,  and  dried, 
then  varnish  with  a  soft  brush — a  badger. 

Canary  Color. — The  color  of  a  canary  bird,  made 
by  mixing-  lemon  yellow,  or  the  pigment  known  as 
patent  yellow  with  white  lead. 

Cane  Work. — The  imitation  of  cane  by  striping. 
To  lay  out  cane  work,  first  provide  a  thin  wooden 
ruler,  say  f  of  an  inch  wide.    The  width  of  ruler 


Fig.  17.— Showing  the  Lines  for  Making 
Imitation  Cane-Work. 


will  govern  the  size  of  opening  in  the  cane.  The 
ruler  must  be  perfectly  true,  so  that  a  line  drawn 
on  either  side  the  space  between  the  lines  shall 
present  no  variation.  The  marker  used  should  be 
so  formed  that  it  will  follow  closely  on  the  edge  of 
the  ruler.  On  a  flat  surface  a  rigid  or  stiff  ruler 
may  be  used.  Vertical  lines  are  first  marked,  then 
by  the  aid  of  a  square  the  horizontal  lines  may  be 
marked  off  at  right  angles.  Then  the  diagonal 
lines  may  be  added.    If  the  work  is  properly  laid 


CARMILION. 


79 


out  each  hole  of  the  cane  work  is  an  octagon  or 
nearly  so.  The  paint  for  cane  work  may  he  made 
by  mixing-  to  white  a  little  yellow  ochre  and  a  little 
sienna,  until  the  desired  shade  is  reached.  It  is 
well  to  allow  one  course  of  lines  dry  before  laying 
others  across  them.  Cane  work  may  be  purchased 
in  sheets  of  transfer  or  decalcomanie,  or  upon 
paper  ready  to  be  glued  or  fastened  to  the  panel. 

The  best  imitation  cane  is  made  under  Barry's 
patent,  composed  of  flexible  paint.  It  is  to  be  had 
in  sheets  ready  for  cutting  to  size  and  pasting  on 
the  work.  Brewster  &  Co.  of  Broome  street,  and 
many  other  leading  carriage-builders  employ  this 
in  preference  to  any  other,  which  certain^  recom- 
mends it. 

Cappagh  Brown. — A  pigment  composed  principally 
of  bog-earth  or  peat,  mixed  or  mineralized  by  man- 
ganese in  various  proportions.  That  in  which  the 
peat  most  abounds  is  the  most  transparent,  deep 
and  rich  in  color  and  dries  promptly  in  oil.  It  is 
similar  to  a  mixture  of  superior  Vandyke  brown 
and  asphaltum  in  appearance. 

Car- body  Color. — A  color  much  used  on  railway 
cars.  Composed  of  yellow,  white  and  a  little 
red. 

• 

Carmelite  Brown. — A  mixture  of  black  and  Van- 
dyke brown — a  very  dark  brown  of  French  origin. 

Carmilion. — A  sort  of  carmine,  made  by  a  secret 
process,  in  which  the  coloring  properties  are  never 
brought  to  a  dry  state,  as  ordinary  pigments.  It 
appears  to  answer  a  good  purpose  on  some  de- 
scriptions of  work.,  and  is  not  so  expensive  as 
carmine. 


80 


CARMINE. 


Carmine. — A  beautiful  red  pigment  made  from  cochi- 
neal. The  color  is  so  extensively  used  by  carriage- 
painters  and  is  at  the  same  time  so  expensive, 
compared  with  ordinary  pigments,  that  it  seems 
worthy  unlimited  space  in  its  description,  and  from 
one  of  the  best  sources  of  information  we  have 
gathered  the  following : 

The  cochineal  insects  feed  upon  the  leaves  of  the 
Quercus  coccifera,  a  low  evergreen  oak  with 
prickly  leaves,  and  on  other  plants  of  a  similar 
nature.  The  females  fix  themselves  firmly  on  the 
plant,  which  serves  them  as  a  habitation,  and 
never  quit  this  spot.  Each  insect  lays  several 
thousand  eggs,  which  proceed  from  the  body 
through  an  aperture  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the 
abdomen,  and  pass  under  the  belly  to  be  hatched. 
Death  then  insues  ;  the  body  of  the  mother  dries 
up ;  its  two  membranes  become  flat,  and  form  a 
sort  of  shell  or  cocoon,  in  which  the  eggs  are  en- 
closed, and  from  whence  the  little  cohineals  soon 
proceed.  When  the  insects  are  in  proper  state 
they  are  brushed  off  the  cactus  plant  with  a 
squirrel's  tail,  and  killed  by  immersing  them  in  hot 
water,  they  are  afterward  dried  in  the  heat  of  the 
sun,  or  in  the  warmth  of  a  stove.  The  finest 
cochineals,  however,  are  killed  by  dry  heat  and 
not  by  immersion.  Three  harvests  are  made 
annually ;  the  first  being  the  best.  It  has  been 
estimated  that  70,000  dried  insects  are  required, 
on  a  average  to  form  a  pound  weight  of  cochineal. 
Cochineal  is  wrinkled  with  parallel  furrows  across 
its  back,  which  are  intersected  in  the  middle  by  a 
longitudinal  one — ~by  this  the  true  cochineal  is  dis- 
tinguished from  any  fictitious  preparation.  The 
coloring  matter  is  obtained  in  the.  following  man- 


CARMINE. 


81 


ner,  in  a  state  of  purity.  Ground  cochineal  is  boiled 
for  about  twenty  minutes  in  fifty  times  its  weight 
of  water,  the  strained  decoction,  after  being*  allowed 
to  subside  for  a  quarter  of  an  hour,  is  decanted  off 
and  precipitated  with  a  solution  of  acetate  of  pro- 
toxide of  lead,  acidulated  with  acetic  acid.  There 
are  several  methods  emplo3^ed  in  the  preparation 
of  carmine  ;  that  described  by  Dr.  Pereira,  is  per- 
haps the  most  approved.  A  decoction  of  the  insect 
is  made  in  water.  To  this  is  added  a  precipitant, 
generally  bichloride  of  tin.  It  is  then  put  in  a 
large  shallow  vessel,  and  allowed  to  rest.  Slowly 
a  deposit  takes  place,  which  adheres  to  the  side 
of  the  vessel,  and  the  liquid  being  poured  off  it  is 
dried,  this  dry  precipitate  is  carmine.  The 
German  method  consists  in  pouring  a  certain 
quantity  of  a  solution  of  alum  into  the  decoction  of 
cochineal. 

There  are  some  remarkable  peculiarities  about 
the  production  of  carmine  :  the  shade  and  character 
of  color  is  altered  by  slight,  very  slight,  differences 
in  the  temperature  at  which  it  is  prepared  ;  and 
with  every  variation  in  the  circumstances  of  il- 
lumination a  change  is  discovered  in  the  color. 
Sir  Humphrey  Davy  relates  the  following  anec- 
dote in  illustration  of  this  :  "A  manufacturer  of 
carmine,  who  was  aware  of  the  superiority  of  the 
French  color,  went  to  Lyons  for  the  purpose  of 
improving  his  process,  and  bargained  with  the 
most  celebrated  manufacturer  of  that  cit3T  for 
the  acquisition  of  his  secret,  for  which  he  was  to 
pay  ,£1,000  ($5,000).  He  saw  all  the  process,  and 
a  beautiful  color  was  produced,  but  he  found  not 
the  least  difference  in  the  French  method  and  that 
which  had  been  adopted  by  himself.    He  appealed 


CARMINE. 


to  his  instructor,  and  insisted  that  he  must  keep 
something-  concealed.  The  man  assured  him  that 
he  had  not,  and  invited  him  to  inspect  the  process 
the  second  time.  He  minutely  examined  the  water 
and  the  materials,  which  were  in  every  respect 
similar  to  his  own,  and  then,  very  much  surprised 
he  said,  '  I  have  lost  both  labor  and  my  money,  for 
the  air  of  England  does  not  admit  us  to  make  good 
carmine.'  'Stay,'  said  the  Frenchman ;  'don't 
deceive  yourself.  What  kind  of  weather  is  it  now  ? ' 
'A  bright  sunny  day,'  replied  the  Englishman. 
'And  such  are  the  days,'  said  the  Frenchman, 
'  upon  which  I  make  my  color  :  were  I  to  attempt 
to  manufacture  on  a  dark  and  cloudy  day,  my 
results  would  be  the  same  as  yours.  Let  me  advise 
you  to  make  your  carmine  on  sunny  days  !'  " 

Six  drachms  of  carmine  may  be  obtained  from 
one  pound  cochineal.  Rouge  for  the  face  is  made 
by  mixing  half  a  pound  of  levigated  French  chalk 
with  two  ounces  of  freshljT-prepared  carmine. 
The  grade  of  carmine  known  as  "  French  No.  40  " 
is  most  extensively  used  by  carriage-painters,  it 
being  a  bright  and  handsome  shade.  The  ground 
over  which  carmine  is  put  must  be  made  to  suit 
the  requirement  of  the  case,  for  it  is  seldom  applied 
as  a  solid  color,  and  glazing"  is  resorted  to  to  econ- 
omize, as  well  as  to  produce  various  shades.  The 
names  given  to  the  different  shades  of  carmine, 
— made  by  changes  in  the  ground  employed — are 
"  bright,  "  "medium,  "  "  dark."  When  we  speak 
generally  of  a  carmine  job,  we  mean  a  deep  En- 
glish vermilion  ground,  lightly  glazed  with  car- 
mine. When  we  speak  of  a  "  bright "  carmine, 
we  mean  a  ground  of  light  English  vermilion, 
glazed  in  the  same  manner.    For  a  "medium" 


CARRIAGE  PAINTING. 


83 


job,  we  make  the  ground  a  little  darker  with 
Indian  red  ;  and  for  a  ' 'dark  carmine"  we  add 
more  Indian  red,  which  gives  us  the  color  known 
in  New  York  shops  as  "French  red."  To  mix 
carmine  we  prefer  to  use  any  light  colored  rub- 
bing varnish,  mixing  and  grinding  it  quite  thick 
at  first,  then  adding  more  varnish  to  form  the 
glazing-,  run  it  through  the  mill  the  second 
time. 

Carmine  is  of  great  service  to  the  ornamenter, 
enabling  him  to  produce  delicate  shades  of  red  or 
pink  by  repeated  glazings  or  by  admixture  with 
white.  Mixed  with  asphaltum,  verdigris,  delicate 
greens,  olives,  drabs,  etc.,  it  imparts  a  warm  tinge 
without  injuring-  the  color ;  washed  over  green 
it  gives  a  warm  shade. 

Carmine  Lake. — This  pigment  is  made  from  the 
second  washings  in  making  carmine.  It  is  one  of 
the  most  serviceable  lake  colors  on  the  list,  owing 
to  the  various  shades  which  can  be  produced  03^ 
simply  changing  the  shade  of  the  ground- work. 

Carnation-— The  natural  color  of  flesh,  or  a  sort  of 
delicate  pink,  made  by  mixing  three  parts  lake  and 
one  part  white. 

Carriage  Painting.— The  painting  of  a  carriage  so 
as  to  secure  a  mirror-like  surface,  free  from  blem- 
ishes of  every  kind,  is  an  art  which  requires  a 
high  grade  of  genius  and  intelligence ;  and  yet, 
the  tendency  of  the  times  is  to  fill  the  paint-shops 
with  a  class  of  workmen  who,  from  inferiority  of 
intellect  and  education,  are  considered  unable  to 
learn  other  branches  of  the  trade.  It  is  true  that 
anybody  can  do  a  part  of  the  work  in  a  paint-shop 
and  do  it  well,  but  it  does  not  follow  that  because 


CARRIAGE  PAINTING. 


a  boy  can  sandpaper  off  a  job,  he  can  apply  a  coat 
of  paint,  and  yet  a  very  large  proportion  of  the 
foundation  coats  are  laid  by  boys  or  men  with  no 
skill  or  judgment,  and  to  this  cause  more  than 
any  other  may  be  attributed  the  large  number  of 
poorly  painted  carriages  in  the  country.  It  re- 
quires practice  to  make  a  painter,  but  it  also 
requires  study.  The  nature  of  paints  aud  oils,  the 
effects  of  mixing-  vegetable  and  mineral  pigments, 
all  require  study,  and  no  matter  how  skillful  a 
man  may  be  with  the  brush,  he  can  never  become 
a  good  painter  without  combining  theory  with 
practice.  The  harmonizing  of  colors  and  the 
effects  of  lights  and  shades  are  of  as  much  impor- 
tance to  the  coach-painter  as  to  the  artist  engaged 
on  landscapes  ;  but  the  coach-painter  must  go 
further.  He  must  produce  a  perfect  surface,  and 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  ensure  durability,  though 
exposed  to  sun  and  storm.  He  must  also  study 
how  to  stripe  and  ornament,  not  merely  how  to 
draw  a  line  of  a  different  color,  but  where  that 
line  should  be  drawn  to  produce  the  best  effect. 
Man}7  a  carriage  body  that  looked  well  in  the 
wood-shop  has  been  made  to  look  ungainly  after 
the  painter  has  drawn  his  lines  upon  it.  The  im- 
portance of  correct  taste  in  this  respect  cannot  be 
over  estimated,  and  every  boy  who  enters  the 
shop  to  learn  the  painter's  trade  should  make  it  a 
leading  study.  The  eye  must  be  constantly  prac- 
ticed on  colors,  as  it  is  by  practice  only  that  a  true 
discrimination  in  shades  can  be  attained.  When 
painters  learn  their  trade  in  this  manner,  we  hope 
to  see  an  end  to  the  miserable  compounding  and 
blending  of  colors  so  noticeable  at  the  present 
time. 


CHANGEABLE  COLORS. 


85 


Cassel  Earth.— A  pigment  of  the  ochre  family,  of  a 
russet  brown  hue  —  very  similar  to  Vandyke 
brown  (q,  v.). 

Celestial  Blue.— A  pigment  made  by  the  mixture 
of  yellow  prussiate  of  potassa,  chloride  of  barium, 
perchchloride  of  iron  and  sulphate  of  ammonia — 
not  extensively  used. 

Cerulean  or  Egyptian  Blue.— A  pigment  used  in 
water  and  fresco  painting,  made  of  carbonate  of 
soda,  powdered  flint  and  copper. 

Ceruse. — The  name  given  to  an  extra  fine  quality  of 
white  lead. 

Chamois-Skin.— The  skin  used  by  the  painter  for 
drying  off  water,  and  called  a  "  shammy,"  derives 
its  name  from  the  chamois,  an  animal  of  the  ante- 
lope kind,  whose  hide  was,  and  may  occasional] y 
be  found  in  a  carriage  paint-shop.  Those  most 
in  use  being  nothing  more  than  alum-dressed 
sheep-skins.  The  best  are  known  as  "  French  oil- 
dressed"  which  are  warranted  to  remain  soft  after 
washing,  costing  from  $8.00  to  $16.00  per  dozen. 
The  best  quality  are  thin,  though  compact  and 
soft,  care  should  be  taken  to  keep  them  free  from 
dirt,  grease,  soap,  etc.,  which  wTould  tend  to  in- 
jure the  work.  Never  use  a  chamois  for  drying 
the  hands  and  face  when  washing. 

Chamoline. — A  color  similar  to  that  of  a  chamois 
skin  when  wet ;  made  by  mixing  white,  yellow 
ochre  and  a  small  quantity  of  red. 

Changeable  Colors.— Colors  that  appear  to  be  of 
a  different  hue  when  viewed  in  different  angles  of 
light.  Prussian  blue  is  one  of  this  class,  by  mix- 
ing the  color  to  dry  "dead"  it  will  appear  reddish 


86 


CHANGEABLE  SIGN. 


in  one  light,  and  dark  blue  in  another.  Clear  var- 
nish should  be  put  over  the  dead  color,  as  color- 
and- varnish  takes  away  that  feature.  Dichroism 
is  the  scientific  term  used  to  denote  this  peculiar- 
ity. 

Changeable  Sign. — A  sign  which  shows  three  dif- 
ferent reading's — made  in  the  following  manner  : 
Make  a  wooden  sign-board  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  have  a  projecting  molding  around  it.  Next 
cut  thin  grooves — a  saw-scarf — in  the  molding 
one  inch  apart,  allowing  each  cut  to  reach  the  sur- 
face of  the  sign-board.  In  each  of  these  grooves 
insert  strips  of  tin  or  other  thin  metal  one  inch 
wide,  and  long  enough  to  reach  across  the  sign- 
board from  the  upper  to  the  lower  molding. 
When  all  arranged,  take  out  the  tin  strips  and 
paint  them  the  desired  color  of  the  sign-board, 
doing  the  board  at  the  same  time.  Next,  put  the 
letters  on  to  the  board  as  usual,  then  laying  the 
strips  of  tin  edge  to  edge,  letter  other  words  on 
each  side,  then  slip  the  tins  into  the  grooves  in 
their  regular  order.  This  will  give  you  a  sign 
reading  three  different  ways,  as  viewed  from  the 
three  positions— front,  right  and  left. 

Charcoal  Black.— A  black  pigment  made  of  burnt 
peach  stones,  white  sugar  and  other  substances. 

Cherry  Brown. — A  color  made  by  glazing  a  ground 
of  Vandyke  brown,  with  a  thin  carmine  glaze. 

Chestnut  Color.— A  color  made  by  the  mixture  of 
two  parts  red,  two  parts  yellow,  and  one  part 
black. 

Chiaro  -  Oscuro  (pronounced  Ke-ar-o- Os-ku-ro) . — 
That  branch  of  painting  which  has  for  its  object 
the  combination  and  arrangement  of  the  light  and 


CHISEL-POINT. 


87 


shadow  of  a  picture  to  the  best  advantage.  Relief 
and  depth,  and  what  is  generally  called  the  effect 
of  a  picture,  are  produced  by  Chiaro-Oscuro. 

China  White. — A  pure  white  pigment,  made  by  the 
assorting  of  the  purest  flakes  of  zinc  white. 

Chinese  Lake. — A  name  sometimes  given  to  scarlet 
lake. 

Chinese  Vermilion. — A  pigment  of  a  bright  red 
color  made  by  the  Chinese  and  with  whom  its 
manufacture  is  a  secret.  It  was  for  many  years 
the  only  vermilion  used  in  this  country.  It  came 
wrapped  in  papers  containing  one  ounce  each,  and 
so  expensive  that  but  little  was  used.  Vermilion 
is  now  used  in  enormous  quantities  and  the  English 
make  has  almost  completely  run  the  Chinese 
brand  out  of  the  market. 

Chinese  Yellow.— A  pigment  made  by  the  Chinese 
consisting  of  very  bright  sulphuret  of  arsenic. 

Chipping. — The  breaking  or  flying  off  of  a  coating 
or  coatings  of  paint  and  varnish  from  the  surface 
on  which  it  was  spread.  The  prime  cause  being 
unelastic  mixtures  of  paint,  i.e.,  paint  which  was 
mixed  to  dry  too  quickly  and  consequently  devoid 
of  oil  or  other  elastic  vehicle. 

Chisel- Point. — A  term  applied  to  those  brushes 
having  the  hair  or  bristles  coming  down  to  a  point 
or  "  chisel-edge."  Brushes  wrere  formerly  made 
with  the  bristles  of  equal  length  and  the  painter 
was  compelled  to  "  wear  down"  a  brush  on  coarse 
work  until  he  obtained  the  requisite  shape.  The 
brush-maker  inserts  the  desired  quantity  of  brist- 
les for  a  brush  into  a  tin  receiver,  and  they  are  by 
that  means  brought  to  a  point,  with  the  flag-end 


88 


CHLORIDE  OF  ZINC. 


of  the  bristle  left  on,  the  upper  end  or  butt  is  then 
cut  off  square  and  the  handle  affixed  thereto. 
This  is  better  than  to  grind  off  the  bristles  or  to 
"  wear  down"  as  some  do,  as  it  leaves  the  brush 
soft  yet  elastic  upon  its  extreme  point. 

Chloride  of  Zinc. — Once  used  to  advantage  as  a 
cement,  is  now  highly  recommended  as  a  paint. 
A  convenient  application  for  this  purpose  is  made 
by  stirring-  a  mixture  of  oxide  and  chloride  of  zinc 
in  cream  of  tartar,  adding-  starch  enough  to  bring 
it  to  the  proper  consistency,  then  boiling-  the 
whole  and  allowing-  it  to  cool.  If  the  paint  is  to 
be  colored  in  any  way  a  pigment  of  the  desired 
shade  is  introduced  before  boiling-  with  the  starch. 
In  course  of  half  an  hour  the  paint  becomes  dry 
and  hard.  This  paint  does  not  become  darkened 
in  the  air,  and  is  without  smell ;  and  even  in  win- 
ter, in  consequence  of  its  quick  drying,  will  admit 
a  second  and  third  coat  in  the  space  of  a  few 
hours.  It  can  be  cleaned  with  soap  and  water, 
like  an  oil  paint,  and  its  action,  in  consequence  of 
containing  the  chloride  of  zinc,  is  as  a  preserva- 
tive of  wood,  rendering1  it  almost  incombustible,  a 
peculiarity  which  can  be  increased  by  adding  a 
small  quantity  of  borax. 

Chocolate  Color. — Add  a  small  quantity  of  lake  or 
carmine  to  burnt  umber  ;  or  take  Indian  red  and 
black  and  add  a  very  little  yellow.  Chocolate 
brown  is  but  another  name  for  this  mixture. 

Chrome  Green. — This  pigment  is  known  to  chemists 
as  the  sesquioxide  of  chromium,  and  it  is  prepared 
by  several  processes,  one  of  which  is  as  follows  : 
A  mixture  of  three  parts  of  neutral  chromate  of 
potassa  and  two  of  sal  ammoniac  is  heated  in  a 


CHROME  ORANGE. 


89 


crucible.  The  two  salts  are  decomposed,  and  there 
is  formed  an  oxide  of  chromium  mixed  with 
chloride  of  potassium.  The  latter  salt  is  removed 
by  several  washing's  of  hot  water,  the  product  is 
then  calcined  to  increase  its  brightness .  In  paint- 
ing with  chrome  green,  it  is  best  to  have  a  well 
made  ground  work  of  lead  color,  then  in  most 
cases,  one  coat  of  the  color  will  cover  it  solidly, 
and  it  should  always  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  more 
color  should  be  applied  than  is  sufficient  to  cover 
the  ground,  for  too  many  coats  will  make  a  por- 
ous foundation  for  the  varnish  coats,  and  loss  of 
lustre  or  cracking  will  result.  Where  more  than 
two  coats  are  required  to  cover,  the  third  coat 
should  contain  a  good  proportion  of  varnish. 
Chrome  Green  is  well  adapted  for  sleighs,  light 
trotting  wagons,  or  for  machinery.  It  is  seldom 
used  in  its  purity  upon  carriage  work,  except  for 
striping  and  ornamenting.  With  white  it  forms 
beautiful  light  green  tints  which  are  extremely 
durable.  It  covers  well  and  dries  in  a  short  space 
of  time  when  properly  mixed. 
Chrome  Orange.— Dichromate  of  lead,  which  is  a 
splendid  orange  color,  is  obtained  by  adding  to  a 
solution  of  nitrate  of  lead  a  solution  of  chromate 
of  potash,  to  which  an  equivalent  of  hydrate  of 
potash  has  been  added.  It  is  also  obtained  by 
fusing  together  five  parts  of  nitre  and  one  part 
chromate  of  lead.  Chromate  of  potash  and 
dichromate  of  lead  are  formed,  and  the  former 
salt  is  removed  by  washing.  Chrome  Orange 
holding  a  large  share  of  red  in  its  composition, 
cannot  be  successfully  used  in  making  greens  with 
blue,  or  tints  of  bright  yellow.  The  principle 
should  always  be  kept  in  mind — to  use  a  color  or 


90 


CHROME  YELLOW. 


pig-men t  which  contains  the  least  of  any  objection- 
able tint,  as,  for  instance,  in  making  a  green 
color,  we  seek  the  purest  yellow,  one  which  has 
but  little,  if  any,  red  in  its  composition,  to  add  to 
the  blue  ;  or  in  preparing  an  olive  color,  we  choose 
a  reddish  or  orange  yellow  to  add  to  black.  This 
color  finds  favor  with  the  ornamenter  and  letterer, 
and  the  striper  generally  prefers  the  ready  mixed 
orange  to  one  made  of  yellow  and  red. 

Chrome  Yellow- — Chemistry  and  the  arts  are  in- 
debted to  Vauquelin  for  the  discovery  of  chro- 
mium, a  peculiar  metal  which  he  found  in  1797,  in  a 
sample  of  Siberian  red  lead  (chromate  of  lead). 
Vauquelin  distinguished  in  the  new  metal  the  re- 
markable coloring  power  of  its  combinations  ;  in- 
deed the  name  he  chose  means  color.  Among  the 
combinations  of  chromium,  the  most  employed  in 
the  arts  are  the  chromate  of  lead,  lime  and  baryta. 
The  neutral  chromate  of  lead  is  of  a  very  fine  and 
bright  yellow,  and  is  known  as  lemon  chrome  by 
a  majority  of  painters. 

Cinnaber. — Vermilion  (which  see). 

Citrine. — The  first  of  the  tertiary  class  of  colors  or 
ultimate  compounds  of  the  three  primaries — yel- 
low, red  and  blue,  in  which  yellow  is  the  predomi- 
nating color,  and  blue  the  extreme  subordinate. 
Citrine  being  an  immediate  compound  of  the 
secondaries,  orange  and  green,  of  both  of  which 
yellow  is  a  constituent,  the  latter  color  is  of  doubt- 
ful occurrence  therein,  while  the  other  two  pri- 
maries enter  singly  into  the  composition  of  citrine. 
There  is  also  a  species  of  brown  pink  dye  called 
citrine  lake,  prepared  from  quercitron  bark. 


CLOUDING. 


91 


Claret  Color. — A  deep  red,  taking-  its  name  from 
claret  wine.  Some  of  the  lakes  and  carmine  will 
give  this  color  ;  or,  mix  red  and  black,  or  blue  and 
carmine.  There  are  many  shades  of  claret  wine, 
as  deep,  pale,  etc.,  and  it  is  rather  an  unsatisfac- 
tory term  to  use  in  expressing  a  color. 

Clay  Drab. — A  color  made  by  mixing  equal  parts  of 
raw  sienna,  raw  umber  and  white  lead,  then 
tinted  with  a  few  drops  of  chrome  green. 

Cleaning  Paint. — Soiled  paint,  whether  on  wood- 
work or  canvas,  may,  it  is  said,  be  cleaned  per- 
fectly by  first  dipping  a  rag  in  finely  powdered 
and  well-sifted  Spanish  white,  and  then  rubbing 
the  surface  in  question,  gently  with  it,  thereby 
removing  dust,  grease,  etc.,  from  the  colors.  The 
surface  is  then  to  be  washed  in  fresh  water  by 
means  of  a  sponge,  and  dried  with  a  soft  chamois 
skin.  The  colors  appear  as  fresh  as  new,  and  the 
whole  process  has  many  advantages  over  the  use 
of  soap. 

Clearcole. — A  mixture  of  thin  size  and  whiting 
spread  over  old  painted  parts  in  houses  to  cover 
grease  spots  and  dirt,  and  aid  in  the  drying  of 
subsequent  coats  of  oil  paint.  It  is  also  used  by 
some  painters  as  a  priming  for  new  wood.  To  a 
certain  extent  the  size  stops  the  absorbent  powers 
of  the  wood  or  plaster,  but  it  prevents  the  proper 
adhesion  of  the  oil  paint,  which  soon  cracks  and 
peels  off. 

Clouding.— The  same  as  smoky,  "foggy."  These 
terms  are  self  -  explanatory  when  used  by  the 
painter,  and  are  synonymous  with  the  English  ex- 
pression "  blooming, "  which  still  more  aptly  de- 
scribes that  the  brilliancy  of  a  varnished  surface  is 


92 


COBALT  BLUE. 


obscured  by  a  "  bloom  "  as  on  a  plum  or  cucum- 
ber. When  clouding-  occurs  on  finished  work,  as 
it  frequently  does,  where  the  carriage  is  exposed 
in  a  repository  impregnated  with  the  sulphur 
fumes  of  the  smith's  forge,  it  may  be  removed  b}T 
washing  with  cold  water,  and  allowing  the  job  to 
stand  in  the  sun  and  open  air  for  a  while.  The 
want  of  ventilation,  and  dampness  will  cause  a 
smoky  appearance  of  the  varnish.  The  technical 
explanation  of  this  trouble  is  "  moisture  condens- 
ing on  the  surface  and  leaving  a  residue  of  car- 
bonic acid  combined  with  other  impurities." 

Cobalt  Blue.— A  pigment  prepared  from  the  metal 
cobalt,  much  used  in  scene  painting. 

Cobalt  Creen. — A  pigment  prepared  from  cobalt, 
with  the  addition  of  oxide  of  zinc  or  iron.  It  is  of 
a  pure  but  not  very  powerful  gre'en  color,  quite 
durable.    Binmann's  Green  is  the  same  thing. 

Colcothar. — A  pigment  made  by  the  calcination  of 
the  green  sulphate  of  iron  (copperas)  upon  plates 
until  it  has  lost  its  combined  water  and  become 
white.  It  is  then  pulverized,  heated  and  submit- 
ted to  the  action  of  sulphurous  acid. 

Cologne  Earth. — A  brown  earthy  pigment  found  in 
the  neighborhood  of  Cologne,  on  the  river  Rhine. 

Color. — In  art,  means  either  the  pigment  employed 
to  produce  a  certain  effect  to  the  ey e,  or  the  effect 
thus  produced.  Color  must  be  regarded  by  the 
artist  not  so  much  the  result  of  application  of  one 
or  more  pigments  separately  as  of  their  use  in 
the  innumerable  combinations  of  which  they  admit. 
The  primary  colors  as  they  are  called — red,  blue 
and  yellow — if  compounded  in  various  proportions, 


COLOR  FOR  GRAINING  GROUND. 


93 


either  in  twos,  or  all  three  tog-ether,  produce  every 
hue  in  nature  or  in  art,  every  tint  that  is  physical- 
ly possible.  First  when  combined  in  twos,  they 
produce  the  three  secondary  colors — that  is  to  say, 
blue  and  red  make  purple  or  violet ;  3fellow  and 
red,  orange  ;  blue  and  yellow,  green.  The  grays 
and  browns,  again,  are  compounded  of  all  three 
of  the  primaries  in  unequal  or  varying*  proportions. 

Color  B I  i  nd  ness. — A  term  introduced  to  denominate 
a  defect  of  vision,  owing-  to  which  some  persons 
are  either  unable  to  discern  a  single  color,  such 
as  red  ;  or  to  distinguish  between  two  colors,  such 
as  red  and  green.  This  defect  is  called  chroma- 
topseudopsis. 

Color  for  Graining  Ground.— For  light  wainscot 
oak,  take  white  lead  and  yellow  ochre,  mixed  to 
the  required  tint.  Some  grainers  prefer  a  per- 
fectly white  ground  for  very  light  oak  for  inside 
work,  but  it  is  always  difficult  for  any  but  a  per- 
fect master  of  the  art  to  proceed  satisfactorily  on 
a  white  ground,  and  the  work,  when  completed, 
is  apt  to  have  a  chalky  effect,  even  though  a  dark 
varnish  be  used. 

For  a  darker  wainscot  oak,  mix  white  lead, 
medium  chrome  yellow  and  yellow  ochre. 

For  dark  oak,  mix  white  lead,  Venetian  red  and 
yellow  ochre. 

For  very  dark  oak,  mix  white  lead,  raw  sienna, 
burnt  umber  and  Venetian  red. 

These  colors,  mixed  in  different  proportions, 
will  produce  a  multiplicity  of  tints  suitable  to  re- 
ceive the  graining  color,  their  strength  being  of 
course  determined  by  the  greater  or  lesser  quan- 
tity of  white  lead. 


94 


COLORLESS  VARNISH. 


For  Mahogany,  some  prefer  a  ground  of  yellow- 
ish cast,  while  others  choose  one  approaching"  a 
bright  red.  The  reds  and  yellows  used  are 
Venetian  red,  red  lead,  vermilion,  raw  sienna,  burnt 
sienna,  orange  chrome,  etc.  These  colors  can  be 
mixed  to  the  tint  required,  an  addition  of  white 
lead  being  made  in  each  case,  as  the  positive  reds 
and  yellows  are  too  powerful  unless  diluted.  Ve- 
netian red,  orange  chrome  and  white  lead  are  the 
colors  most  generally  used  and  these  colors  will, 
according  to  their  predominance  or  subordination, 
make  such  a  variety  of  tints  that  the  most  fastidi- 
ous grainer  need  have  no  misgiving  as  to  results. 

For  Rosewood,  use  Venetian  red,  vermilion  and 
white  lead.  Scarlet  lake  is  sometimes  added  for 
best  work,  and  some  mix  with  the  reds  a  small 
quantity  of  raw  sienna  or  chrome  yellow. 

For  Bird's-eye  maple  and  satin  wood,  use  pure 
white  grounds,  and  it  is  of  the  utmost  importance 
to  have  the  grounds  painted  with  finely  strained 
colors  and  perfectly  smooth. 

Colorless  Varnish.— A  colorless  varnish  suitable 
for  prints,  oil  paintings  and  hard  white  wood, 
may  be  made  by  dissolving  2.5  ounces  of  shellac 
in  a  pint  of  rectified  spirits  of  wine.  To  this  must 
be  added  about  five  ounces  of  well-burnt  animal 
charcoal  that  has  been  recently  heated,  and  the 
whole  boiled  for  a  few  minutes.  If  on  filtering  a 
small  portion  of  the  mixture  through  blotting 
paper  it  is  not  found  to  be  perfectly  colorless, more 
charcoal  must  be  added  until  the  desired  result  is 
obtained.  When  this  has  been  achieved,  the  mix- 
i  are  must  be  strained  through  a  piece  of  silk  and 
filtered  through  blotting  paper. 


COPAL  GUM. 


95 


Colorone. — A  substitute  for  oil,  japan  and  varnish 
in  color  mixing". 

Complementary  Colors.— The  color  required  with 
another  color  to  form  white  light,  is  called  the 
complementary  of  that  color  ;  thus,  red  is  the 
complementary  of  green,  and  vice  versa  ;  blue  is 
the  complementary  of  orange,  and  vice  versa; 
yellow  is  the  complementary  of  violet,  and  vice 
versa;  because  blue  and  orange,  red  and  green, 
yellow  and  violet  each  make  the  full  complement 
of  rays  necessary  to  form  white  light. 

Contrast. — The  laying  in  of  colors  to  a  picture  or 
other  ornamental  design  so  that  one  gives  great- 
er effect  to  the  other.  All  art  is  a  system  of  con- 
trasts ;  lights  should  contrast  with  shadows, 
members  with  members,  groups  with  groups.  It 
is  this  which  gives  life,  soul  and  motion  to  a  com- 
position. 

Copal  Cum. — Although  commonly  called  a  gum 
scientific  research  has  demonstrated  that  it  is  a 
misnomer  from  the  fact  that  true,  gums  are  soluble 
in  water,  while  copal  gum  is  dissolved  only  in  oil 
of  turpentine.  If  it  were  a  gum,  distilled  water 
would,  of  course,  dissolve  it  to  a  certain  degree  ; 
if  it  were  a  resin,  it  would  be  easily  dissolved  in 
alcohol ;  if  it  were  a  g-um-resin,  both  menstrua 
would  have  some  effect  upon  it,  and  as  they  have 
none,  this  proves  that  the  substance  belongs  to 
another  class  than  the  gums  and  resins.  We  may 
explain  what  appears  to  be.  an  error  in  termino- 
logy, by  conceiving  of  true  copal  as  being  a  fossil 
gum — a  substance  that  was  once  a  true  gum, 
soluble  in  water,  and  having  the  other  essential 
qualities  of  a  gum,  but  whose  characteristics  have 


COPAL  GUM. 


been  so  changed,  by  the  action  of  outward  influ- 
ences, that  the  ordinary  tests  of  its  identity  are 
no  longer  available. 

There  are  many  varieties  of  copal  gum,  which 
differ  greatly  from  each  other  in  appearance  and 
chemical  properties.  The  great  bulk  of  copal 
comes  from  different  parts  of  Africa,  and  it  forms 
a  very  important  feature  of  the  export  trade  of 
that  country. 

We  shall  direct  our  remarks  mainly  to  the 
Zanzibar  copal,  that  variety  being  the  less  in 
quality,  and  therefore  the  one  most  used  in  var- 
nishes of  the  highest  grade,  and  it  is  the  kind 
about  which  we  have  the  most  direct  and  definite 
information . 

It  is  generally  supposed  that  Zanzibar  copal 
is  found  on  the  island  of  Zanzibar,  but  this  is  not 
the  case.  A  very  little  only,  and  that  of  an  infer- 
ior quality,  is  found  on  this  island.  However,  the 
port  of  Zanzibar  occupies  the  position  of  trading 
post  at  which  the  copal  is  collected  and  shipped 
by  the  merchants  who  are  there  established.  In 
seasons  of  ordinary  activity  the  shipments  of  copal 
from  Zanzibar  to  the  United  States  far  exceed  the 
shipments  made  to  any  other  country.  Consider- 
able of  the  copal  is  found  lying  upon  the  surface 
of  the  grounds,  which,  in  commerce,  is  called 
"surface  gum,"  but  this  is  not  so  valuable  as 
that  which  lies  deeper  in  the  sand.  Usually 
the  copal  is  found  at  a  depth  of  from  a  few  inches 
to  three  or  four  feet,  and  it  is  seldom  that  the 
native  diggers  go  deeper  than  this,  but  there  is  a 
reason  to  believe  that  the  gum  would  be  found  at 
a  much  greater  depth,  and  perhaps  in  much  larg- 
er quantities.    The  greater  the  depth  at  which 


COPAL  GUM. 


97 


it  is  found  the  greater  the  purity  and  value  of 
the  gum.  Copal  dug*  before  the  rains  is  always 
more  impure  than  that  which  comes  afterward, 
because  it  is  more  of  a  surface  gum.  But  during 
the  rainy  season,  when  the  soil  is  moist  and  soft, 
the  natives  dig  deeper,  and  the  copal  comes  in 
larger  pieces  and  of  better  quality.  The  first 
operation  after  the  gum  is  collected,  is  to  pass  it 
through  coarse  sieves  to  separate  the  small  from 
the  large  pieces,  the  latter  being  called  by  those 
in  the  business  "  pandy-pandy."  The  remainder 
of  the  gum,  which  has  passed  through  the  first 
sieve,  is  then  passed  through  a  finer  one,  and  all 
that  runs  through  is  "  refuse,"  consisting  of  dirt 
and  small  pieces  of  gum,  that  are  not  saleable, 
and  this  is  thrown  into  the  sea.  The  gum  having 
been  assorted  into  two  sizes,  is  now  cleansed  by 
being-  placed  in  a  solution  of  weak  potash  water. 
This  does  not  always  remove  the  adhering-  dirt, 
and  it  becomes  necessary  to  scrape  each  piece 
separately,  but  as  labor  is  cheap  in  Africa  this  is 
not  an  expensive  operation.  Having  been  cleans- 
ed, and  classified  by  the  merchants  of  Zanzibar, 
the  copal  is  ready  for  shipment  in  the  first  vessel 
that  arrives.  The  gum-room  of  a  well  organized 
varnish  factory  is  generally  a  busy  place.  Here 
we  see  oblong  boxes  of  gum  coming  in  from  "  over 
the  sea."  Here  it  is  assorted  by  boys,  who  from 
constant  practice,  have  become  experts  in  dividing 
the  bright,  crystal-like  pieces  from  the  dark 
brown,  spotted  or  discolored  ones  ;  and  here  the 
several  grades  are  sorted,  weighed  and  wheeled 
to  the  melting  room. 
Copal,  To  Dissolve  in  Alcohol.— Dissolve  one 
ounce  of  camphor  in  a  quart  of  alcohol,  put  it 


98 


COPPER  COLOR. 


into  a  circulating*  glass,  and  add  eight  ounces  of 
copal  gum  in  small  pieces ;  set  it  on  a  sand  heat, 
so  regulated  that  the  bubbles  may  be  counted  as 
they  rise  from  the  bottom,  and  continue  the  same 
heat  till  the  solution  is  completed.  This  process 
a\ ill  dissolve  more  copal  than  the  menstruum  will 
retain  when  cold,  and  it  will  be  economical  to  set 
the  vessel  aside  for  a  few  days  to  settle,  then  pour 
off  the  clear  varnish,  leaving  the  residue  for  future 
operation.  This  solution  will  be  found  excellent 
as  a  varnish  for  pictures,  it  being  exceedingly 
clear  and  bright. 

Copper  Color. — The  color  of  the  metal  copper,  made 
with  two  parts  of  yellow,  one  of  red,  and  one  of 
black.  Copper  bronze  is  frequently  used  to  pro- 
duce this  color. 

Copper  Greens. — A  class  of  pigments  having  the 
metal  copper  for  a  base,  among  which  may  be 
mentioned,  verdigris,  mineral  green,  green  lake, 
emerald  green,  French  green,  marine  green,  etc. 
These  greens  are  generally  bright  in  color  and 
well  suited  for  house-painting  and  work  of  like 
character,  but  not  so  well  adapted  for  the  fine  arts. 

Cracking. — The  breaking  up  of  the  painted  surface 
into  parts  more  or  less  minute,  as  of  a  looking- 
glass  when  fractured.  The  principal  causes  of 
which  are  :  1st,  Putting  too  much  oil  in  the  under 
coats.  2d,  Quick  painting  over  oil  painting  ;  and 
it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  filling  up  pro- 
cess on  carriage  bodies  is  of  the  nature  of  "  Presto 
painting,"  for  which  reason  the  priming  coats 
have  to  be  united  with  considerable  caution  and 
practical  knowledge.  By  no  means  must  they 
dry  glossy,  which  is  evidence  of  too  much  oil. 


CRAYON  CONTE. 


on 


3d.  By  destruction  of  the  oily  properties  of  the 
varnish  through  exposure  to  atmospheric  or  solar 
influences.  4th,  By  the  action  of  ammonia  or 
other  alkalies.  5th,  By  reason  of  unsuitable 
driers  in  the  varnish,  or  added  thereto  after  its 
manufacture.  6th,  Springing-  of  the  wood  or  rup- 
ture of  the  ground,  work  of  the  painting-  by  severe 
jars.  The  drying-  of  oily  color  is  often  so  slow 
that  it  does  not  crack  the  subsequent  coats  until 
the  work  has  been  varnished  and  run  out. 

Crawling. — A  term  applied  to  paint  or  varnish 
which,  after  being-  spread,  its  surface  presents 
portions  which  have  contracted.  The  remedy  for 
this  difficulty  is  g-enerally  found  in  wiping-  over  the 
surface  on  which  the  paint  or  varnish  is  to  be  laid 
with  a  damp  cloth,  or  by  throwing-  water  in  small 
quantities  upon  the  paint  while  brushing-  it. 

Crayon. — The  name  given  to  pieces  of  charcoal, 
white  and  red  chalk  of  convenient  size  and  shape, 
which  are  used  for  drawing-  on  various  kinds  of 
paper,  and  for  sketching-  cartoons,  or  the  outlin- 
ing- of  painting's  of  considerable  size  on  canvas. 
Crayons  of  various  colors  and  tints,  are  also  made 
by  mixing-  vegetable  and  mineral  coloring-  matters 
with  pipe  clay  or  chalk  and  giving-  consistency 
and  adhesiveness  to  the  mass  by  the  addition  of 
gum-water,  soap,  wax  or  some  similar  substance. 

Crayon  Conte. — The  name  given  to  a  kind  of  crayon 
made  of  lamp-black  and  a  very  fine  clay,  said  by 
artists  to  be  an  excellent  quality  of  crayon.  The 
ingredients  are  baked,  and  any  desired  degree  of 
hardness  is  given  by  allowing  it  to  remain  in  the 
oven  a  certain  length  of  time.  It  derives  its  name 
from  the  inventor,  a  French  chemist. 


100 


CREAM  COLOR. 


Cream  Color. — A  color  made  of  five  parts  white, 
two  parts  yellow,  and  one  of  red. 

Crems  or  Kremnitz  White. — A  white  carbonate 
of  lead  sometimes  called  Vienna  white,  being- 
brought  from  Vienna  in  cakes  of  cubical  form. 
Though  highly  reputed  it  has  no  superiority  over 
the  best  white  lead  made  in  this  country. 

Creosote  Wood  Stains.— The  creosote  stains  take 
their  name  from  one  of  their  most  important  in- 
gredients— Cresol,  or  "Creosote" — which  is  a 
well-known  preservative  of  all  vegetable  tissues. 
This  substance  unites  with  the  albuminous  or  sappy 
part  of  the  wood,  which  is  naturally  the  first  to 
decay,  and  forms  with  it  a  compound  which  resists 
all  change  from  water  or  the  variations  of  climate. 
It  also  is  said  to  protect  the  wood  against  the 
ravages  of  insects — notably  the  white  ant  of  the 
South. 

These  stains  are  made  in  a  great  variety  of 
colors  suitable  for  exterior  uses  ;  and  their  effect 
upon  the  pretty  shingled  villas  and  cottages  now 
so  much  in  vogue  is  extremely  picturesque  and 
beautiful. 

Crest. — A  device  worn  upon  a  helmet  and  represented 
above  a  shield  of  arms.  Crests  are  not  borne 
above  the  arms  of  ladies,  except  the  Queen. 

Crinkling  Up. — A  term  applied  to  varnish  when  it 
assumes  a  wrinkled  appearance.  It  may  be  caused 
by  varnish  which  is  too  new  ;  but  more  frequently 
to  inexperienced  workmanship,  in  putting  on  the 
varnish  in  uneven  patches  and  not  brushing  it 
equally,  and  when  this  superabundance  exists  on 
the  surface,  the  excess  of  varnish  must  crinkle  up 
for  obvious  reasons. 


CUP. 


101 


Cross  (Her). — An  ordinary,  formed  by  lines  drawn 
palewise  and  fesswise,  enclosing  one-fifth  of  the 
shield,  or  one-third  if  charged.  A  cross  gules  is 
termed  the  cross  of  St.  George.  A  plain  cross  is 
one  of  which  the  extremities  do  not  reach  to  the 
circumference  of  the  escutcheon,  but  are  couped. 
A  cross  crosslet  is  one  crossed  on  each  arm.  A 
cross  flory  has  three  points  at  each  end.  Amal- 
tese  cross  has  arms  increasing-  in  breath  toward 
the  end,  with  double  points.  The  cross  of  St. 
Andrew,  is  in  form  of  an  X.  There  are  numerous 
styles  of  crosses,  but  the  above  are  the  principal 
ones. 

Crystal  Varnish. — This  varnish  is  excellent  for 
maps,  drawings,  etc.,  and  may  be  made  as  follows  : 
Take  Canada  balsam,  1  oz.;  spirits  of  turpentine, 
2  oz.;  mix  together.  Before  applying  this  varnish 
to  a  drawing  or  colored  print,  the  paper  should 
be  placed  on  a  stretcher,  and  sized  with  a  thin 
solution  of  isinglass  in  water,  and  dried.  Apply 
with  a  soft  camel's-hair  brush. 

Cup. — A  small  tin  vessel,  round  and  with  a  flat 
bottom  ;  having  a  handle  on  one  side,  and  open  at 
the  top.  Ordinary  tin  cups  may  be  used  for  hold- 
ing paint,  but  cups  used  in  varnishing  should  have 
a  flat  side  made  on  the  top  edge  that  one  may 
wipe  the  brushes  over  without  fear  of  rounding 
them.  There  should  be,  at  least,  three  cups  used 
for  work  on  a  heavy  body,  in  order  to  keep  the 
varnish  from  the  particularly  difficult  or  promi- 
nent parts,  perfectly  clean,  and  free  from  air  bub- 
bles. Varnish  cups  are  also  made  with  double 
bottom  between  which  sand  is  put,  to  make  the 
cup  heavy  and  not  liable  to  be  overturned  when 


102 


CURDLING. 


wiping-  out  a  brush ;  and  in  some  instance  the 
sand  is  heated  to  render  the  varnish  more  limpid . 
Varnish  cups  should  be  left  in  a  bath  of  strong* 
potash  lye  until  every  particle  of  varnish  is  eaten 
off,  then  rinsed  in  clean  water  and  dried  before  use. 
Clean  varnishing  can  never  be  done  if  the  cup  used 
is  covered  both  inside  and  out  with  gummy  and 
partially  dried  varnish. 

Curdling. — A  term  applied  to  paint  which  thickens 
or  curdles  ;  due  in  most  cases  to  the  use  of  poor 
japan.  If  a  poorly  made  japan  be  added  to  lin- 
seed oil,  the  mass  will  curdle,  not  mix  together ; 
but  when  the  japan  is  of  a  good  quality  a  perfect 
assimilation  of  the  two  ingredients  will  result. 

Curled  Maple  Graining.— Imitation  of  this  wood 
may  be  made  as  follows :  Prepare  a  light  cream 
color  for  the  ground,  by  mixing  chrome  yellow  and 
white  lead,  and  burnt  sienna  or  Venetian  red  to 
tinge  it.  Paint  the  work  with  this  and  when  dry 
prepare  the  graining  mixture  by  mixing  in  equal 
proportions,  raw  sienna  and  Vandyke  brown  (dry) 
in  old  ale  ;  spread  the  graining  mixture  (called 
"rubbing1  in")  over  the  cream  colored  paint — do- 
ing a  little  at  a  time — then  draw  a  piece  of  cork 
over  across  the  work  to  form  the  grains  which 
run  across  the  wood.  This  will  dry  in  a  few  min- 
utes when  it  should  be  varnished.  To  grain  maple 
in  oil  for  outside  work,  prepare  a  rich  cream 
ground  as  before.  Then  for  the  graining  color, 
grind  equal  parts  of  raw  sienna  and  umber  in 
boiled  oil  and  turpentine,  adding  a  small  quantity 
of  beeswax  dissolved  in  turpentine  to  hold  the 
grain  in  place.  Spread  this  over  the  ground 
work,  make  the  lights  by  rubbing  off  the  graining 


CUTTING  IN. 


103 


mixture  with  a  piece  of  leather  or  a  rag",  soften 
the  edges  slightty  by  rubbing*  over  a  blender, 
and  when  dry  put  on  the  top  grain  with  burnt 
umber  and  raw  sienna,  ground  in  ale  with  the 
white  of  an  egg*  added.  When  dry,  varnish  with 
hard  drying*  body  varnish. 

Cutch. — A  number  of  pieces  of  parchment  or  animal 
skins,  between  which  gold  is  placed  to  be  beaten 
out  into  sheets. 

Cutting  Down. — This  term  is  applied  to  the  rubbing 
of  rough-stuff  coatings  with  lump  pumice-stone  ; 
and  to  the  rubbing  of  paint  on  bodies  or  g*ears, 
with  sand-paper  ;  also  to  the  rubbing  of  varnish 
with  pulverized  pumice-stone. 

Cutting  In- — Applied  to  the  application  of  color 
around  a  letter  or  stripe.  In  the  case  of  letters, 
the  ground  is  put  on  around  the  letter  instead  of 
putting  the  letter  upon  the  ground. 


D 


Da  mar. — A  gum  obtained  from  certain  species  of 
pine  trees ;  it  is  hard,  brittle  and  similar  to  copal, 
largely  used  in  making-  varnishes.  Damar  var- 
nish is  almost  colorless,  being-  of  a  milky  hue  and 
mixed  with  zinc  white  it  forms  what  is  known  as 
"china  g-loss."  It  is  not  durable  when  exposed  to 
the  weather,  but  for  inside  work  and  for  some  of 
the  purposes  of  the  artist  it  is  excellent. 

Damask. — The  name  given  to  textile  fabrics  in  which 
figures  of  flowers,  prints,  or  others  not  of  geome- 
trical regularity  are  woven.  Painting  in  imitation 
of  such  fabrics  is  fashionable  and  certainly  very 
pleasing,  while  at  the  same  time  the  work  is  done 
in  an  easy  and  inexpensive  manner  upon  the  side 
walls  of  a  room. 

The  wall  needs  no  preparation  if  it  be  hard- 
finish,  and  none,  other  than  that  given  to  all 
kalsomined  walls  (sizing)  if  kalsomined.  First 
draw  a  design  of  flowers,  leaves,  or  whatever 
fancy  dictates,  and  make  a  perforated  pattern. 
Dust  this  upon  the  wall  with  a  pounce-bag  (q.  v.) 
filled  with  Venetian  red  or  black.  Next  proceed 
to  mark  the  red  lines  with  a  soft  black  crayon. 
When  the  plan  is  thus  all  laid  out,  mix  whiting 
and  carriage  rubbing  varnish,  or  furniture  var- 
nish, to  form  a  medium  thick  paint,  add  a  little 
dissolved  borax  (say  i  lb  to  a  quart  of  turpentine) 
and  stir  all  well  together.    If  the  mixture  be  too 


DARK  RICH  BROWN. 


105 


thick  to  spread  nicely  and  it  covers  the  marks  of 
the  crayon  completely,  thin  it  with  turpentine 
until  it  does  not  do  so,  for  the  crayon  marks  must 
be  seen  through  the  paint.  When  properly  pre- 
pared, paint  over  the  whole  side  wall,  and  let  it 
stand  a  while  to  set.  Now  with  a  very  coarse 
graining  comb  (q.  v.)  comb  it  over,  running  the 
lines  of  the  comb  from  ceiling  to  floor  at  an  angle 
of  say  45  degrees ;  then  cross  comb  it  directly  at 
right  angles — this  gives  the  appearance  of  woven 
fabric.  The  combing  done,  take  a  flattened  stick 
and  smooth  out  the  combings  which  are  within 
the  boundary  of  the  design,  leaving  all  outside  of 
.  the  figure  untouched  and  let  all  dry  hard.  When 
dry,  give  a  thin  coat  of  glue-size  and  kalsomine 
the  wall  with  a  bluish  or  greenish  tint.  The 
combings  will  show  out  splendidly  and  the  figures 
will  be  quite  smooth,  so  that  the  appearance  of 
damask  will  deceive  many.  This  work  may  be 
done  with  oil  paint  in  a  similar  manner. 

Damp  Blue. — Or,  as  called  by  some,  Brunswick 
Blue  and  Celestial  Blue,  is  made  by  precipitating 
the  alumina  from  a  solution  of  alum  by  carbonate 
of  soda,  and  adding  sulphate  of  baryta  ;  sulphate 
of  iron ;  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  and  some 
bichromate  of  potash.  When  dried  it  is  known  as 
Brunswick  Blue,  but  when  not  dried  it  is  called 
Damp  Blue. 

Dark  Lead  Color-— White  lead  and  lamp-black 

mixed  to  suit ;  any  shade  may  be  made. 

Dark  Rich  Brown- — A  color  much  admired  for 
panels  or  for  gears  on  carriages,  made  of  Indian 
red  five  parts,  Prussian  blue  one  part;  mix  and 
grind  in  brown  japan  and  turpentine  equal  parts, 


106 


DAUB. 


add  a  very  little  raw  linseed  oil,  say,  a  tablespoon- 
ful  to  a  pint  of  paint.  Ety  changing-  the  propor- 
tions of  the  pigments  the  color  can  be  made  light 
or  dark.  Vermilion  and  ivory-black  will  make  a 
good  brown,  but  all  browns  made  with  red  and 
black  are  improved  or  softened  by  the  addition  of 
yellow.  Umber  brown,  Vandyke  brown,  sienna 
brown,  etc.,  are  all  pigments  of  the  brown  order, 
but  require  the  addition  of  other  pigments  to 
lighten  or  darken  or  give  richness.  Umber  brown 
without  a  drop  or  two  of  red  is  a  cold,  raw  color, 
unless  placed  in  juxtaposition  to  the  required  red- 
dish paint. 

Daub. — To  paint  in  a  rough  manner.  A  workman 
who  does  not  fully  understand  his  trade  is  some- 
times called  a  daub  or  dauber. 

Dead  Black  Paint. — In  the  Locomotive,  issued 
monthly  by  the  Hartford  Steam  Boiler  and  In- 
spection Company,  is  a  recipe  for  painting  brass 
tubes,  optical  instruments,  etc.,  a  dead  black. 
The  writer  claims  that  after  trying  numberless 
unsatisfactory  recipes,  he  has  at  last  found  one 
which  is  perfection  in  every  respect.  Take  two 
grains  of  lamp-black,  put  it  into  any  smooth,  shal- 
low dish,  such  as  a  saucer  or  small  butter  plate, 
add  a  little  gold  size,  and  thoroughly  mix  the  two 
together.  Just  enough  gold  size  should  be  used 
to  hold  the  lamp-black  together.  About  three 
drops  of  such  size  as  may  be  had  by  dipping  the 
point  of  a  lead-pencil  about  half  an  inch  into  the 
gold  size,  will  be  found  right  for  the  above  quan- 
tity of  lamp-black  ;  it  should  be  added  a  drop  at  a 
time,  however.  After  the  lamp-black  and  size  are 
thoroughly  mixed  and  worked,  add  twenty-four 


DEAD  FINISH. 


107 


drops  of  turpentine,  and  again  mix  and  work.  It 
is  then  ready  for  use.  Apply  it  thin  with  a 
camel's-hair  brush,  and  when  it  is  thoroughly  dry 
the  articles  will  have  as  fine  a  dead  black  as  the3r 
did  when  they  came  from  the  optician's  hands. 

Dead  Color. — A  term  given  to  paint  that  dries  with- 
out gloss.  This  is  brought  about  by  the  use  of 
more  turpentine  than  oil,  japan,  or  varnish. 
House-painters  generally  use  the  word  "flat"  to 
convey  the  same  meaning. 

Deadening. — A  term  together  with,  "perishing," 
"  sinking  in,"  "withering,"  "grain  showing," 
"  s  adding  down,"  "striking  in"  and  "going 
sleepy,"  applied  to  one  very  serious  deviltry  on 
the  part  of  varnish,  it  loses  its  brilliant  mirror- 
like surface  and  becomes  dull  or  lustreless.  The 
common  causes  for  which  are  :  First,  from  unsea- 
soned timber.  Second,  from  imperfectly  dried  un- 
dercoats. Third,  from  absorption  of  the  oils  of 
the  varnish.  Fourth,  the  failure  to  allow  the  es- 
cape of  gas  from  the  can  before  applying  it.  Ab- 
sorption is  the  principal  agent.  (See  American 
Method.) 

Dead  Finish. — A  lustreless  surface.  A  term  applied 
to  the  finish  produced  by  rubbing  the  gloss  from 
varnish  with  pulverized  pumice-stone  and  oil,  the 
surface  being  left  in  a  semi-lustrous  state  by  omit- 
ting the  polishing  process.  Much  of  this  work  is 
done  on  furniture  with  shellac  varnishes  rather 
than  with  copal  owing  to  its  quick  and  hard  dry- 
ing properties.  Dead  finish  is  given  to  painting 
in  houses,  by  mixing  the  paint  with  turpentine 
principally,  and  is  called  "flatting"  by  the  house- 
painter. 


108 


DEC  ALCOM  ANIE . 


Decalcomanie. — The  art  of  transferring-  pictures  or 
designs  printed  or  painted  upon  prepared  paper 
to  other  surfaces.    (See  Transfer  Ornaments.) 

Deep  Buff. — A  mixture  of  white,  yellow  and  red, 
forms  a  color  known  as  bull',  and  by  increasing*  the 
quantity  of  red  and  yellow  a  deep  buff  is  pro- 
duced. 

Deepen. — To  darken,  as  to  deepen  the  shadows  of  a 
picture  thereby  making  them  more  intense  by 
adding-  a  stronger  or  darker  color  to  the  already 
dark  parts. 

Detergent. — A  chemical  preparation,  which  when 
spread  on  a  painted  surface,  softens  the  paint  so 
that  it  can  be  easily  removed  by  scraping-.  Some 
of  these  chemical  preparations  are  self-destroying, 
and  one  ingredient  neutralizes  the  effects  of  the 
others,  yet  the  composition  is  not  active  without 
that  ingredient,  and  therefore  as  the  detergent 
cannot  be  kept  for  any  length  of  time  it  must  be 
mixed  in  small  quantities  as  required.  Lime, 
potash,  soap,  soda,  are  among-  the  principal  in- 
gredients of  detergent. 

Deviltries. — A  term  used  by  coach-painters  to  in- 
dicate the  detestable  action  of  paint  and  varnish 
at  various  times.  The  subject  is  indeed  an  exten- 
sive one,  and  we  prefer  to  note  the  many  "  devil- 
tries" under  their  respective  heads  than  to  extend 
this  article  to  so  great  a  length.  The  deviltries  of 
paint  and  varnish  we  find  in  adulteration  of  ma- 
terials. Fading,  darkening-,  greening,  cracking, 
chipping,  peeling,  being  gritty,  fatty,  greasy, 
curdling,  pitting,  clouding,  blistering,  etc.,  which 
see  under  their  proper  headings. 


DIAPER. 


109 


Dexter. — Right,  as  opposed  to  left,  or  sinister  (Her)m 
The  right  hand  side  of  a  shield. 

Diaper. — An  exceedingly  pretty  style  of  ornament 
consists  of  the  application  of  a  "diaper"  in  colors 
to  the  lower  portions  of  the  pilaster,  as  shown  in 
Fig.  18.    The  term  "diaper"  as  applied  to  decora- 


Fio.  18.— Diaper  Work. 

tion  may  require  probably  some  little  explanation. 
"Among  early  decorators  several  kinds  of  diaper 
are  met  with,  the  most  common  extending  itself 
over  large  surfaces  in  a  running  or  geometrical 
pattern,  executed  in  a  darker  shade  of  the  ground 
color.  Sometimes  it  was  used  for  exterior  decora- 
tion as  a  series  of  red  devices  arranged  upon  an 


110 


DIAPER. 


uncolored  ground,  or  more  properly,  a  ground 
possessing  no  other  color  than  the  prevailing  tint 
of  the  building." 

Diaper  is  most  useful  to  supply  the  place  of 
middle  tints,  the  introduction  of  which  might  de- 
stroy the  brilliancy  and  interfere  with  the  keeping 
of  polychromatic  painting.  In  addition  to  this 
valuable  property,  and  its  especial  peculiarity  as 
a  series  of  repetitions  of  a  single  design,  this  sys- 
tem of  mural  embellishment  possesses  a  yet 
stronger  recommendation  on  the  score  of  its  ex- 
treme simplicity. 

This  fact  alone  should  be  sufficiently  obvious  to 
popularize  the  modern  revival  of  an  ancient  prac- 
tice, which  was,  in  one  period  of  art  history,  not 
only  to  be  found  upon  the  walls  of  dwelling-houses, 
but  formed  an  important  feature  in  the  magnifi- 
cently illuminated  manuscripts  of  the  mediaeval 
era. 

The  colors  most  suited  to  the  production  of 
diaper  ornaments  and  other  similar  decorative 
purposes  are  the  following  recognized  combina- 
tions : 

White  ornaments  on  yellow  ground. 

Yellow  on  white. 

Yellow  on  red.    Red  on  yellow. 

Black  on  red.    Red  on  black. 

Salmon  tint  on  brown.    Brown  on  gray. 

Gray  on  brown.    Yellow  on  gray. 

Brown  on  green.    Green  on  stone  color. 

Gray  on  black.    Red  on  gray. 

Red  and  gray  alternating  on  stone  color. 

Red  and  black  alternating  on  stone  color. 

Black,  white  and  reel  alternating  on  stone  color. 


DISTEMPER  PAINTING. 


Ill 


Distanced  Lines. — In  striping",  when  a  broad  stripe 
is  drawn  with  fine  lines  on  each  side  of  it  and  at  a 
short  distance  from  it,  the   


lines  are  said  to  be  dis- 
tanced.  As  "  a  broad  stripe 


of  red  with  distanced  lines  Fig.  19.— Distanced 
of  cream  color."  LlNES- 
Distemper  Painting. — A  coarse  kind  of  painting-, 
in  which  the  colors — of  a  commoner  kind  than  those 
usually  employed  for  artistic  purposes — are  mix- 
ed in  a  watery  glue,  such  as  size  and  whiting. 
The  chief  purposes  for  which  distemper  is  now 
used  are  the  coloring  of  walls,  scene-painting",  and 
in  staining-  paper  for  walls.  The  so-called  fresco 
painting  (q.v.)  of  to-day  is  principally  distemper. 
The  whitening  or  coloring  of  walls  and  ceilings 
commonly  called  "  Kalsomining"  is  simply  a  com- 
mon kind  of  Distemper  and  fresco  work.  The  base 
of  Distemper  is  either  whiting,  or  Spanish  white, 
the  latter  being  purer,  and  this  mixed  to  a  cream- 
like consistency  with  warm  glue  water  forms  the 
white,  while  a  coloring-  of  any  tint  may  be  had  by 
simpry  adding  other  pigments  in  small  quantities. 

Plaster  of  Paris  is  often  added  to  whiting  and 
the  whole  mixed  with  clear  water,  the  plaster  act- 
ing- as  a  binder,  and  it  is  certainly  far  more  clean- 
ly, as  there  is  no  liability  of  its  being  affected  by 
damp  as  in  the  case  of  animal  size. 

Comminuted  or  finely  powdered  glue  has  of  late 
years  become  an  article  of  commerce,  and  its 
adaptability  for  mixing  with  whiting  in  proper 
proportions  to  form  Distemper  or  Kalsomine  when 
wet  with  boiling  water,  has  been  taken  advantage 
of,  and  now  one  may  purchase  almost  any  desired 
tint  of  prepared  or  "dry  kalsomine"  at  a  village 


112 


DOTTER. 


store.  A  good  wall  brush  (see  Brushes)  should  be 
used  to  apply  distemper  colors  to  a  large  surface, 
a  common  white-wash  brush  being*  unfit  for  the 
purpose. 

Dotter. — A  tool  used  in  graining-,  made  by  rolling  a 
piece  of  cloth  saturated  with  graining  color  until 
a  point  is  formed ;  this  point  must,  however,  be 
open  like  the  aperture  of  a  funnel ,  but  semicircular 
in  shape,  and  with  this  the  dots  or  eyes  of  maple 
wood  are  imitated. 


Fig.  20.— Double  Shaded  Letters. 

Double  Shade. — In  lettering  or  scrolling  the  double 
shade  is  frequently  used.  It  consists  of  an  addi- 
tional width  in  the  ordinary  shade  (or  properly, 
thickness)  of  a  letter  added  in  some  other  color,  as 
for  example:  a  black  shade  upon  a  red  ground 
would  be  double  shaded  by  another  of  same  width 
in  carmine,  or  a  glazing  of  asphaltum.  The  idea 
being  to  blend  the  intense  contrasting  shade  to 
the  ground  color.    (See  Lettering.) 

Dragon's  Blood. — A  resinous  substance  from  the 
juice  of  a  plant  found  in  the  East  Indies.  There 
are  two  sorts,  but  that  in  drops  is  the  best.    It  is 


DRYING. 


113 


used  to  color  varnishes,  lacquers  and  stains,  and 
is  of  no  use  otherwise  to  the  painter. 

Dressing. — A  term  used  to  express  the  laying-  or 
leveling-  of  varnish  upon  a  surface.  The  varnish 
is  spread  over  a  surface,  and  the  brush  is  passed 
over  it  in  various  ways  to  cause  it  to  lie  uniform, 
and  this  is  called  "  Dressing- "  the  varnish. 

Drying.— A  term  applied  to  the  solidification  of 
paints  and  varnishes,  but  improperly,  as  it  signi- 
fies that  a  body  moistened  by  a  liquid  loses  that 
liquid  by  evaporation.  Although  the  spirits  of 
turpentine  that  is  generally  used  to  diminish  the 
viscidity  of  the  oil  in  paints,  and  to  enable  the 
mixture  to  flow  better,  evaporates,  there  is  left  a 
fluid  coat  thicker  than  before,  but  by  no  means 
dry,  being  in  the  condition  called  "set";  and 
from  this  point  in  the  hardening  process,  far  from 
losing  anything  by  evaporation,  the  coat  hardens 
by  absorbing  oxygen  from  the  air. 

A  panel  of  wood  painted  or  varnished,  dries 
more  quickly  in  a  jar  of  oxygen  than  in  the  air, 
and  does  not  dry  at  all  in  a  jar  filled  with  car- 
bonic acid  gas.  A  freshly  painted  surface  may 
be  kept  for  a  long  time  under  water  without  dry- 
ing-, not  because  it  wets  like  a  cloth,  but  because 
the  water  keeps  it  from  the  oxygen  of  the  air. 

Other  things  being  equal,  paint  and  varnish 
dries  more  quickly  at  a  temperature  of  80°  than 
below.  This  explains  why  in  practice  the  propor- 
tions of  driers  should  vary  in  summer  and 
winter,  in  mixing  paint  for  outside  work,  and  it 
shows  also  why  paint  shops  should  be  kept  at  a 
summer  temperature. 

All  the  fixed  oils  have  an  attraction  for  oxygen, 


114 


DRYING. 


and  by  exposure  to  the  air  they  either  become 
hard  and  resinous  or  sour  and  rancid.  Those 
which  exhibit  the  first  property  in  a  marked 
degree,  as  linseed  oil,  poppy  oil,  rape  and  seed  oil 
etc.,  are  called  drying  oils,  and  are  used  as 
vehicles  for  colors.  The  drying-  quality  is  greatly 
increased  by  boiling,  either  alone,  or  with  litharge, 
sugar  of  lead,  etc.,  when  the  product  forms  the 
boiled  oil  or  drying  oil  of  commerce. 
Colorless  Drying  Oil. — Heat  5  gallons  of  water 
to  the  boiling  point  in  a  vessel  holding  15  gallons, 
when  boiling  add  5  gallons  linseed  oil  and  1  pound 
red  lead,  keep  it  constantly  stirred  and  boil  for 
2  hours,  then  remove  it  from  the  fire  and  let 
settle. 

Dark  Colored  Boiled  Oil. — A  good  drying  oil  for 
use  in  house  painting  is  made  by  boiling,  with 
constant  stirring,  1  gallon  of  linseed  oil  with 
f  pound  of  powdered  litharge,  until  a  skin  forms, 
then  remove  the  scum,  and  when  cold  and  settled 
decant  the  clear  portions. 

Driers  for  Dark  Colored  Paints.— Grind  the 
best  litharge  with  drying  oil.  A  small  portion 
added  to  paint  will  cause  it  to  dry  quickly. 

For  light  colored  paint,  sulphate  of  zinc  or 
sugar  of  lead  may  be  substituted  for  the  litharge. 

Pale  Boiled  Oil. — Boil  1  quart  linseed  oil  and 
2  ounces  white  vitriol  (sulphate  of  zinc)  with  one 
quart  of  water  until  the  water  has  all  evaporated, 
then  allow  it  to  settle. 

Dusting  Off-— The  thorough  cleaning  from  dust  of  a 
surface  to  be  varnished  is  something  that  has 
puzzled  the  painter  for  years.  The  tenacity  with 
which  the  little  bits  of  lint  adhere  to  a  panel,  and 


DUTCH  ULTRAMARINE. 


115 


the  unsightly  appearance  they  give  to  the  varnish 
if  left  on  the  work  is  a  source  of  trouble.  There 
are  several  ways  to  remove  these  specks. 

One  painter  in  preparing- a  body  for  varnish,  oils 
his  duster,  that  is,  he  applies  a  few  drops  of  sweet 
oil  to  one  hand  then  rubs  the  two  palms  together 
until  the  oil  is  well  distributed  ;  he  then  rubs  the 
tip  of  his  bristle  duster  lightly  over  the  palm  until 
it  has  taken  up  a  little  oil.  With  this  duster  he 
then  goes  lightly  over  the  panel  and  the  oil  helps 
to  take  up  any  remaining  particles  of  dust  or  lint. 
This  is  fairly  effective.  Another,  substitutes  var- 
nish for  oil,  and  with  this  prepares  his  duster  in 
the  same  manner.  This  is  preferable  to  the  oil 
method,  for  the  varnish  is  more  adhesive.  The 
third  uses  instead  of  a  regular  duster  a  flat  bristle 
varnish  brush— for  instance,  the  one  with  which 
he  has  just  varnished  a  roof  or  arch— this  he 
passes  lightly  over  the  panel,  after  it  has  been 
well  scraped  out  and  allowed  a  little  time  to  get 
sticky.  This  is  one  of  best  plans  we  know  of,  for 
it  takes  off  every  speck.  The  use  of  silk,  etc.,  for 
cleaning  a  job  is  now  obsolete. 

Dutch  Metal.— An  imitation  of  gold  leaf,  made  of 
very  inferior  metal— used  in  scene  painting. 

Dutch  Pink.— A  pigment  of  a  dark  leather  color, 
similar  in  appearance  to  yellow  lake,  made  by  im- 
pregnating common  whiting  with  vegetable  yellow 
tinctures.  It  is  not  a  durable  pigment,  except 
when  glazed  with  yellow  lake. 

Dutch  Ultramarine.— Same  as  Cobalt  Blue. 


E 


Easel. — A  frame  on  which  a  painter  supports  his  can- 
vas or  sign-board  while  working-.  It  is  so  contriv- 
ed that  the  work  may  be  raised  or  lowered  at  will, 
or  be  thrown  forward  or  back  as  desired.  The 
common  easel  consists  simply  of  three  strips  of 
wood  hinged  together  at 
the  top,  and  supplied  with 
a  series  of  holes  in  which 
pegs  are  inserted  on  which 
to  rest  the  canvas  or  other 
work. 

Eastlake  Ornamentation. 

— A  modern  idea  of  archi- 
tecture and  decoration, 
originating  with  Mr.  Chas. 
E.  Eastlake  of  England,  a 
full  account  of  which  may  Yiq.  21.-An  Easel. 
be  found  in  a  work  pub- 
lished by  him,  entitled  "  Hints  on  Household 
Tastes."  Unfortunately  it  is  simply  a  "style" 
— not  a  classified  "  order  "  with  defined  principles 
of  treatment  and  uses  of  application  and  delinea- 
tion. Delineated  with  taste  and  judgment,  it  may 
be  made  pleasing  to  the  eye ;  but  the  excessive 
gaudery  indulged  in  by  a  class  of  reckless  adven- 
turers who  abuse  the  integrity  of  this  new  idea  by 
extravagant,  unsightty  and  ill-conceived  creations 
of  their  own,  is  calculated  to  render  it  offensive 


EBONIZING  SOFT  WOODS. 


117 


and  repulsive  to  those  enjoying*  a  fair  degree  of 
refinement  in  the  aesthetics  of  ornamentation ; 
this  may  cause  its  rejection  even  as  a  "  style " 
except  by  a  limited  number  who  prefer  oddities, 
or,  who,  being  devoid  of  skill  in  the  art,  wish  to 
palm  off  "  monstrosities''  as  works  of  art. 
bonizing  Soft  Woods. — 1.  Into  a  quart  of  boil- 
ing water  put  one-and-one-half  ounces  of  copperas 
and  two  ounces  of  logwood  chips.  Lay  on  hot. 
When  dry,  wet  the  surface  again  with  a  solution 
formed  of  two  ounces  of  steel  filings  dissolved  in 
half  a  pint  of  vinegar. 

2.  Wash  the  wood  with  a  concentrated  aque- 
ous solution  of  acetate  of  iron  of  fourteen  degrees 
Baume.  Repeat  this  until  a  deep  black  is  produc- 
ed. 

3.  Brush  with  a  strong-  decoction  of  logwood 
chips  several  times,  then  give  it  a  coat  of  vinegar 
in  which  rusty  nails  have  been  laid. 

4.  Boil  in  four  quarts  of  water  one  pound  of 
logwood,  add  a  couple  of  handfuls  of  walnut  shells 
(or  pods).  Boil  again,  and  take  out  the  refuse, 
add  a  pint  of  vinegar,  and  apply  boiling-.  After- 
wards dissolve  one  ounce  of  green  copperas  in  a 
quart  of  boiling  water,  and  apply  hot. 

5.  Boil  one-half  pound  of  chip  logwood  in  two 
quarts  of  water,  add  one  ounce  of  pearlash,  and 
apply  hot.  Now,  boil  one-half  pound  of  logwood 
in  a  couple  of  quarts  of  water,  as  before,  and  add 
one-half  ounce  of  verdigris  and  one-half  ounce  of 
copperas,  strain  and  put  in  one-half  pound  of 
rusty  steel  filings.  With  this  go  over  the  work  a 
second  time. 

6.  One  gallon  of  vineg-ar,  one-half  pound  of 
green  copperas,  one-quarter  pound  of  China  blue, 


118 


EDGING. 


two  ounces  of  nut-galls,  two  pounds  of  extract  of 
log  wood.  Boil  over  a  slow  fire,  then  add  a  pint  of 
iron  rust.    Wash  the  wood  with  this. 

7.  First  sponge  the  wood  with  a  solution  of 
chlorhydrate  of  aniline  in  water,  to  which  a  little 
copper  chloride  has  been  added.  When  dry, 
repeat  with  a  solution  of  potassium,  bichromate. 
Do  this  two  or  three  times. 

8.  Make  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  iron,  by  dis- 
solving two  ounces  of  sulphate  in  a  pint  of  hot 
water.  Paint  the  wood  repeatedly  with  this. 
When  dry,  apply  a  hot  decoction  of  logwood  and 
gall-nuts  two  or  three  times.  When  this  has 
dried  also,  clean  with  a  wet  sponge  before  polish- 
ing. 

9.  Infuse  gall-nuts  in  vinegar  in  which  rusty 
nails  or  steel  filings  have  soaked,  and  paint  the 
wood  in  this. 

Of  course  when  the  work  has  become  dry  again, 
sandpaper  down  the  grain,  and  get  a  smooth  face, 
and  as  work  to  be  ebonized  must  be  quite  free 
from  holes,  oil  and  fill  in  an}^  of  these  with  pow- 
dered drop-black  mixed  in  a  filler.  Then  give  all  a 
coat  of  quick-drying  varnish,  and  rub  down  with 
finely  pulverized  pumice-stone  and  linseed  oil  until 
a  good  surface  is  acquired. 

You  may  get  a  good,  varnish  for  ebonized  work 
by  dissolving  black  wax  in  spirits  of  wine.  (See 
Staining  Woods.) 
Edging. — A  fine  stripe  or  line  drawn  upon  the  edge 
of  a  letter.  Upon  gold  lettering  this  line,  either 
a  light  color  or  a  dark  one,  is  invariably  used  to 
form  a  perfect  edge  to  the  metallic  letter  or  to 
give  it  prominence.  Edging  is  sometimes  put  all 
around  a  letter  and  sometimes  only  upon  the  edge 


ELASTIC  GEAR  VARNISH. 


119 


opposite  to  the  shade ;  the  object  then  "being  to 
give  to  the  work  the  appearance  of  strong  light 
upon  that  edge,  and  this  called  by  some  "high 
light"  or  "high  lighting  a  letter."  For  letters 
under  four  inches  in  height  the  line  is  usually 
made  the  size  of  a  stout  line  of  striping ;  except 
for  very  small  letters  when  an  exceedingly  fine 
line  is  used.  For  large  letters  the  edging  will  be 
from^  of  an  inch  upward. 

Edging  when  well  done,  i.  e.,  all  the  lines 
straight,  of  uniform  size,  and  the  corners  well 
made,  gives  a  finish  to  a  letter  superior  to  any 
other.  Painted  letters  are  seldom  edged  or  light- 
ed. The  color  used  for  gold  lettering,  is  generally 
a  light  cream  color,  however,  much  depends  upon 
the  color  of  the  ground.  Upon  a  light  ground,  as 
white,  yellow,  etc.  ;  the  edging  maybe  black,  red, 
blue,  green  or  any  color  that  will  be  prominent, 
may  be  employed,  and  in  some  case  one  color  will 
be  used  on  the  shade  side  and  another  on  the  light 
side. 

Egg-Shell  Gloss.— A  term  frequently  used  by 
painters,  meaning  that  the  surface  of  paint,  when 
dry,  presents  a  similar  gloss  as  that  upon  an  egg- 
shell, subdued,  not  full  and  lustrous,  showing  that 
the  quantity  of  oil  or  varnish  in  the  mixture  is  not 
in  excess. 

Elastic  Gear  Varnish. — The  name  given  to  a  var- 
nish designed  more  particularly  for  the  wheels 
and  under  parts  of  carriages,  and  although  pos- 
sessing a  large  share  of  elasticity,  will  dry  suffi- 
ciently hard  for  handling  in  from  eight  to  ten 
hours.  One  coat  of  this  varnish  over  a  well  made 
foundation  will  give  extreme  durability.     It  is 


120 


ELASTIC  LEVELING  VARNISH. 


pale,  limpid,  and  works  easily  under  the  brush. 
The  painter  will  be  able  to  flow  it  over  a  wheel 
before  giving-  it  the  final  "  dressing  "  or  laying-  off. 

Elastic  Leveling  Varnish.— The  name  given  to  a 
varnish,  designed  for  under  coats  on  carriage 
bodies  or  gears.  It  is  a  medium  between  Hard- 
Drying  Body  varnish  and  Quick  leveling  varnish, 
in  nearly  all  its  qualities.  It  is  limpid,  yet  will 
thicken  while  being  applied,  and  rubs  nicely  owing 
to  its  hard  drying  quality,  yet  as  its  name  implies 
it  is  sufficiently  elastic  to  please  the  most  fastidi- 
ous. 

Ellipse,  How  to  Draw. — To  lay  out  a  perfect 
oval  is  very  simple  providing  you  know  how. 
Suppose  we  want  an  oval  to  fill  a  given  space,  say 
fifteen  inches  long  and  eight  inches  wide,  we  first 
draw  a  horizontal  line  through  the  centre  of  our 
space,  which  on  the  accompanying  cut  is  marked 
N  N.  Then  across  its  centre  we  draw  the  vertical 
line  H  H.  Next  measure,  from  the  centre  M, 
seven  and  a  half  inches  each  way  on  the  line  N, 
and  four  inches  each  way  on  the  line  H,  which 
gives  us  the  exact  space  that  our  oval  must  fill. 
Now  take  the  compasses  (or  dividers),  and  putting 
one  leg  on  the  centre  M,  place  the  other  leg  at  the 
point  seven  and  a  half  inches  off,  on  line  N  ;  lift 
the  compasses,  being  careful  not  to  displace  them, 
and  set  one  leg-  on  spot  H,  four  inches  from  cen- 
tre, and  turn  the  other  leg  down  until  it  strikes 
line  N,  which  it  will  do  about  two  inches  from  the 
spot  N,  and  that  spot  is  marked  A  on  our  cut. 
Then  turn  it  the  other  side  of  centre  M,  and  mark 
the  other  spot  O  on  line  N.  Now  stick  a  pin  or 
tack  into  the  points  O  and  O,  and  a  pin  or  tack  in 


EMERALD  GREEN. 


121 


point  H  at  the  top.  Next  take  a  piece  of  string 
and  tie  it  around  the  two  pins  quite  tig-lit,  then 
remove  the  pin  at  point  H,  and  put  in  its  place  the 
point  of  a  pencil,  as  shown  in  the  eng-raving,  and, 
keeping  the  string-  taut,  move  the  pencil  along. 
You  will  find  that  the  string  directs  the  course  of 
the  pencil  point,  and  the  result  will  be  a  perfect 
oval,  or  properly,  ellipse.  The  ellipse  may  be 
made  any  size  or  shape,  i.  e.,  long  and  narrow,  or 
broad  and  short,  etc.,  by  simply  laying  out  the 


Fig.  22.— Method  of  Laying  Out  an  Ellipse. 


measurements  on  the  lines  H  and  N  :  for  instance, 
if  we  measure  twenty-two  inches  on  line  N,  and 
four  inches  on  line  H,  the  oval  will  be  very  long 
and  slim,  but  nevertheless  a  perfect  ellipse.  This 
may  be  done  with  the  compass  alone,  but  it  can 
not  be  done  so  well  or  so  correctly  as  by  the  above 
method. 

Emerald  Green.— The  name  of  a  copper  green  pig- 
ment. It  is  the  most  vivid  of  this  class  of  colors, 
being  rather  opaque  and  powerfully  reflective  of 


122 


ENAMEL  BLUE. 


light.  Its  hue  is  not  common  in  nature,  but  well 
suited  for  brilliant  works.  It  works  well  in  water, 
but  with  difficulty  in  oil  and  dries  badly  therein. 
The  only  true  emerald  green  is,  however,  that  of 
chrome,  with  which  metal  nature  gives  the  green 
color  to  the  emerald. 

Enamel  Blue. — A  name  often  given  to  blue  smalt 
(which  see). 

Enameled  Leather  Varnish. — A  preparation  for 
giving  leather  that  appearance  it  had  when  new. 
We  append  the  Messrs.  Valentine's  directions  for 
use.  "First  clean  the  leather  thoroughly  with 
soap  and  water,  and  when  dry,  if  soft  and  pliable, 
put  on  at  once  a  thin  coating  of  the  E.  L.  V.,  using 
a  medium-sized  bristle  brush.  Should  the  leather 
be  very  hard,  old  and  stiff,  apply  first,  a  coating 
of  our  Permanent  Wood  Filling  with  a  brush  or 
sponge,  and  ivipe  well  with  rags  so  as  to  leave 
no  P.  W.  F.  on  the  surface.  Let  it  stand  over 
night  to  dry  ;  then  apply  a  coat  of  the  E.  L.  Var- 
nish, which  will  dry  in  a  hour  or  so  ready  for  use. 
This  varnish  may  also  be  used  for  staining  oak- 
grained  wood-work  in  houses,  to  give  a  black- wal- 
nut appearajnce  to  the  same. 

The  patent-leather  of  America  takes  the  lead  of 
all  others,  and  its  preparation  and  use  is  so  closely 
allied  to  carriage  painting,  we  give  space  to  a 
description  of  the  process  of  coloring  it.  There 
are  three  distinct  operations  :  1st,  preparation  of 
the  surface ;  2d,  varnishing ;  3d,  drying.  The 
object  of  the  first  operation  is  to  close,  as  much  as 
possible,  the  pores  of  the  skins ;  a  ground  is  thus 
obtained  ready  to  receive  the  varnish.  The  mix- 
ture used  is  linseed  oil,  white  lead  and  litharge, 


ENAMELED  LEATHER  VARNISH. 


123 


in  the  following- proportions  :  20  lbs.  of  lead,  20  lbs. 
of  litharge  and  27  gallons  of  oil.  They  are  boiled 
together  until  reduced  to  the  consistence  of  a 
syrup. 

This  composition  is  united  with  chalk,  or  ochre, 
according  to  the  circumstances,  then  spread  on 
the  skin  with  a  steel  tool.  The  first  coating  is  al- 
lowed to  dry,  and  two  more  coats  are  applied  in 
like  manner,  when  the  surface  is  rubbed  with 
lump  pumice-stone,  several  more  coatings  are  ap- 
plied, until  perfect  uniformity  prevails,  then  the 
pumice-stone  is  applied  the  second  time ;  a  suffi- 
ent  thickness  must  be  obtained  to  prevent  the  var- 
nish from  penetrating  the  leather,  and  rendering 
it  hard  and  brittle.  This  can  be  easily  understood, 
as  the  oil  penetrating  too  far  into  the  pores,  they 
would  become  hard  during  the  heating,  and  thus 
cause  small  holes  over  the  entire  surface.  After 
this  is  finished,  three  to  five  layers  of  oil  without 
ochre,  but  colored  with  ivory-black  and  enough 
spirits  of  turpentine  to  enable  it  to  flow  evenly 
over  the  entire  surface,  are  applied.  The  object 
of  this  last  operation  is  to  make  a  black  ground, 
very  black  and  of  a  high  polish  ready  to  receive 
the  varnish.  After  each  layer,  the  leather  is  dried 
in  the  drying  room.  Frequently  the  surface 
receives  a  polish  by  rubbing  it  over  with  fine 
tripoli,  or  pumice-stone,  with  a  piece  of  woolen  rag. 

A  good  varnish  is  composed  of  20  lbs.  of  spirits 
of  turpentine,  10  lbs.  thick  copal  varnish,  1  lb.  as- 
phaltum  and  20  lbs.  of  oil  prepared  as  above. 

The  asphaltum  can  be  replaced  by  an  equal 
quantity  of  Prussian  blue,  or  ivory-black,  accord- 
ing to  the  article  desired,  the  one  giving  a  reddish 
and  the  other  a  blackish  tint.    The  temperature 


124 


ENGLISH. 


of  the  drying-  room  is  about  170  degrees.  The 
patent-leather  varnish  is  left  there  for  about  15  to 
20  days  before  being-  applied  to  the  surface.  In 
order  that  these  operations  be  successful,  it  is  nec- 
essary that  the  tanning  and  curbing  of  the 
leather  be  done  with  great  care.  The  leathers  are 
manufactured  in  all  colors,  white,  red,  blue,  yel- 
low, etc.,  and  copal  varnish  used  in  nearly  every 
case. 

English.— A  prefix  denoting  the  origin  of  various 
articles,  as,  English  vermilion,  English  varnish, 
English  rubbing  stone,  etc.,  all  coming  from  En- 
gland. 

English  Red.— A  name  often  given  to  Venetian  red 
(which  see).  * 

Escutcheon  {Her).— A  shield  on  which  armorial 
bearings  are  depicted. 

Express  Wagon  Painting.— The  painting  of  ex- 
press or  business  wagons  may  be  performed  in 
three  different  ways  as  follows  : 
1st.  Lead  Priming  Method. — The  body  being 
ready,  apply  a  coat  of  pure  keg-lead  and  raw  lin- 
seed oil,  having  the  paint  mixed  very  thin,  i.  e.,  a 
little  lead  in  a  large  quantity  of  oil — and  set  the 
job  aside  for  a  week,  to  dry.  Then  sandpaper 
well,  and  apply  a  clean-looking  lead  color,  using  a 
little  japan  dryer,  and  give  two  or  three  days  to 
dry.  Next  putty  up  all  the  imperfections,  give 
one  day  more,  then  cut  down  with  sandpaper,  and 
put  on  the  third  coat  of  lead  paint,  having  more 
drier  in  it,  or  less  oil.  Give  another  careful  look 
over  and  a  close  puttying,  and  when  dry,  it  will  be 
read3T  for  the  final  sandpapering,  preparatory  to 


EXPRESS  WAGON  PAINTING. 


125 


laying*  the  color.  The  color  may  be  dark  green, 
made  by  mixing*  Prussian  blue  with  chrome 
green,  or  better  still,  use  deep  Milori  green,  add 
sufficient  oil  to  agree  with  the  under  coats  of  lead. 
Two  coats  of  color  and  one  of  color-and-varnish 
will  generally  be  sufficient  in  getting-  the  job 
ready  for  striping-  and  ornamenting". 

2d.  The  Knifing  or  Putty  Method. — When  the 
priming  coat  is  dry  (and  this  may  be  lead  prim- 
ing, or  wood  filling-),  mix  keg-lead  with  turpentine 
and  japan  drier,  add  a  very  little  lamp-black  and 
apply  to  a  portion  of  the  work  ;  in  a  few  minutes 
the  paint  will  assume  a  dull  appearance,  when  it 
must  be  scraped  over  with  a  broad,  flat,  putty- 
knife,  in  the  same  manner  as  if  plastering-  with 
putty.  This  process  rubs  the  lead  paint,  which  has 
lost  much  of  its  turpentine  by  evaporation,  into 
the  pores  of  the  wood.  Every  part  of  the  body ; 
ribs,  panels,  top-strip,  sill,  etc.,  must  be  knifed 
over,  and  any  superfluous  paint  be  nicely  cleaned 
off.  Then  allow  a  day  for  drying*,  give  it  a  g-ood 
sandpapering  and  apply  color  as  usual. 

3d.  Wood  Filling  and  Rough-Stuff  Process. — 
The  body  being-  completed  no  further  than  the 
frame  work,  it  receives  a  priming-  of  P.  W.  F. 
(q.  v.)  The  chamfers  and  faces  of  the  rails  or 
ribs  are  plastered  wTith  putty  and  sandpapered  when 
dry.  They  are  now  ready  for  color,  which  may 
be  ivory- black.  The  panels  are  sawed  out  and 
smoothed  by  the  woodworker,  being  left  from 
i  to  f  of  an  inch  wider  than  necessary  to  fit  the 
frame- work  to  allow  for  shrinkage.  These  then 
receive  a  priming  coat  of  Permanent  Wood  Fill- 
ing', which  is  put  on  freely  and  well  rubbed  in  with 
rag's,  until  no  surface  coating  is  left,  it  having 


126 


EXPRESS  WAGON  PAINTING. 


been  nearly  all  absorbed  by  the  wood.  Give  48 
hours  for  drying-,  unless  the  weather  is  very 
favorable,  as  in  summer,  and  then  apply  to  the 
face  side  of  the  panels,  rough-stuff,  which  may 
either  be  ready  ground,  or  shop  mixed  as  follows  : 
3  parts  English  filling,  or  mineral  paint ;  2  parts 
of  white  lead,  with  brown  japan  two  parts,  and 
rubbing  varnish  one  part,  dilute  with  turpentine. 
For  the  first  coat  add  a  very  little  oil,  because 
that  which  comes  next  to  the  priming  must  be  a 
little  more  elastic  than  the  subsequent  coats  need 
be.  48  hours  should  be  given  for  the  first  coat  of 
rough-stuff  to  dry,  after  which,  two  coats,  with 
no  oil  in  the  mixture  may  be  applied,  one  coat 
each  day.  Stain  the  panels,  and  rub  down  with 
pumice-stone  as  usual;  give  plenty  of  time  for 
the  moisture  to  dry  out  of  the  porous  rough-stuff, 
then  with  a  rag  filled  with  P.  W.  F.  rub  over  the 
surface  to  close  the  pores  and  give  it  a  binding  or 
adhesive  property.  The  body-maker  may  now  fit 
the  panels  and  screw  them  fast  from  the  inside, 
and  the  outside  of  the  body  will  be  found  in  good 
condition.  Some  prefer  to  color  and  prepare  the 
ribs  and  the  panels  before  they  are  put  together, 
but  it  is  not  a  good  plan.  The  rough-stuffing  of 
the  panels  we  commend,  inasmuch  as  that  part  of 
the  wood  between  the  panel  and  rib  or  frame  is 
thus  well  painted,  allowing  no  chance  of  injury 
by  water  enteriug  at  those  places  ;  and  besides  it 
makes  a  smoother  job. 
The  Gears. — These  having  been  similarly  primed 
with  P.  W.  F.,  and  the  smith  having  completed 
the  iron-work,  the  first  operation  is  a  good  cutting- 
down  with  sandpaper,  which  prepares  the  work 
for  a  second  coat  of  P.  W.  F.,  put  on  in  the  same 


EXPRESS  WAGON  PAINTING. 


127 


manner  as  before,  i.  e.,  well  wiped  or  rubbed  in. 
When  this  is  dry,  putty  up  all  imperfections,  such 
as  open-grained  places.  Sandpaper,  and  apply  a 
coat  of  flesh  color — white  and  red  mixed,  as  a  pre- 
paration for  vermilion.  Next,  mix  English  ver- 
milion, light  shade,  and  apply  that  as  the  color ; 
color-and- varnish  next,  then  moss  off  and  stripe. 
The  body  having-  been  colored  with  green  and 
black,  is  also  ready  for  striping". 

The  style  of  striping-  on  this  work  and  ground 
will  be  a  black  panel  stripe  |  of  an  inch  in  width, 
with  fine  lines  of  white  twisted  up  in  various 
shapes  to  fill  the  centres  of  the  panels  or  blank 
spaces.  The  body  has  the  ribs  black  with  fine 
lines  of  white  or  cream  color  on  the  faces  of  the 
ribs.  No  striping-  on  the  panels.  The  inside  of 
the  body  may  have  two  coats  of  pea  green  and 
one  of  color-and-varnish,  which  finishes  that  part. 

If  the  panels  are  lettered  in  gold,  it  will  be  well 
to  give  a  coat  of  rubbing  varnish,  then  rub  down 
with  pulverized  pumice-stone  and  finish  with  some 
good  quality  of  finishing-  varnish. 

It  has  been  demonstrated  by  repeated  experi- 
ment that  gold  lettering  and  ornamenting*  will 
wear  longer  when  the  size  is  put  upon  dead  color, 
instead  of  on  a  rubbed  surface  of  varnish,  but,  as  it 
is  a  little  more  difficult  for  the  workman  to  lay 
his  size  thus,  there  are  but  few  who  recommend  it. 


F 


Facing. — The  careful  rubbing-  of  a  surface,  are  the 
final  touches  given  to  a  surface  of  rough-stuff  by 
gently  rubbing  with  pumice-stone. 

Facing  Coat-— The  coat  of  Permanent  Wood  Fill- 
ing- put  upon  a  rubbed  rough-stuff  surface,  in  the 
place  of  facing  lead,  to  answer  the  same  purpose, 
as  well  as  to  hermetically  seal  the  pores  of  the 
paint  and  thereby  add  durability  to  the  whole 
paint  structure. 

Facing  Lead. — A  coating  of  dry  white  lead  and 
lamp-black — preferably  dry  lead  to  prevent  the  use 
of  oil — put  over  the  rubbed  surface  of  rough-stuff, 
to  enable  the  workman  to  see  any  imperfections 
in  the  surface,  such  as  scratches,  dents,  etc. 
When  dry,  it  is  carefully  rubbed  smooth  with 
pumice-stone. 

Fat  Oil. — Linseed  oil  that  has  become  thickened  by 
age,  or  by  heating,  is  used  for  size  in  gilding,  and 
is  called  fat  oil  size,  for  others,  see  oils. 

Fatty. — Paint  having  too  much  oil  in  it  will  become 
' '  fatty"  if  allowed  to  stand  exposed  to  the  air. 
It  is  a  partial  oxidation  of  the  oil. 

Fawn  Color. — Color  of  the  young  deer,  made  of  8 
parts  of  white,  one  of  vermilion,  two  of  yellow, 
and  one  of  umber. 


FILLING. 


129 


Felt- — A  stuff  of  wool  and  fur  made  by  rolling-  and 
pressing",  used  by  painters  in  connection  with  pul- 
verized pumice-stone  to  rub  varnished  surfaces. 
The  words  "  Felting  down"  is  used  in  Europe  in 
place  of  the  word  "rubbing." 

Festooning. — A  term  applied  to  varnish  which  has 
run  down  from  moldings,  etc.,  in  waves,  festoons 
or  curtains.  The  varnish  may  be  too  new,  and 
thin,  or  it  may  have  been  thinned  or  mixed  with 
oil,  or  by  being  put  on  with  a  brush  having  no 
elasticity  it  was  left  thick  in  some  places  and  thin 
in  others.  A  slow  drying  and  durable  varnish  is 
more  liable  to  run  into  festoons  than  a  hard  and 
quick  drying  one.  When  this  is  the  case,  and  the 
painter  cannot  prevent  the  running  in  any  other 
way,  he  may  add  a  little  hard  drying  body  var- 
nish. 

Field  (Heraldry). — The  field  is  divided  into  nine 
points :  A,  the  dexter  chief  point ;  B,  the  middle 
chief ;  C,  the  sinister  chief  point ;  D,  the  honor  or 
collar  point ;  E,  the  fess  point ;  F,  the  nombril  or 
navel  point;  G,  the  dexter  base;  H,  the  middle  base ; 
I,  the  sinister  base  point.  It  will  be  observed  that 
the  dexter  (right)  and  sinister  (left)  sides  of  the 
shield  are  so-called  from  their  position  in  relation 
to  the  supposed  bearer  of  the  shield,  and  not  to 
the  eye  of  the  spectator. 

Field's  Carmine. — The  name  frequently  given  to 
madder  carmine,  or  lake. 

Filling. — Any  material  used  for  filling  the  pores  or 
grain  of  wood,  as  starch,  whiting,  putty  of  various 
kinds,  preparatory  to  varnishing  or  painting. 


130 


FILLING. 


Filling  {Arch). — The  wall  surface  between  the  dado 
and  the  frieze  or  cornice;  also  the  ground  of  a 
panel. 

Finisher. — Among-  carriage-painters,  the  one  who 
puts  on  the  last  coat  of  varnish,  usually  designat- 
ed the  finishing-  coat.  The  finishing  is  the  most 
delicate  part  of  carriage  painting,  and  is  becoming 
a  distinct  and  separate  branch  of  the  trade. 

Fire  Checks. — A  species  of  cracking,  of  a  painted 
or  varnished  surface — the  cracks  are  very  small, 
running  in  every  direction,  forming  squares,  tri- 
angles and  circles,  but  seldom  visible  until  a  fine 
lustre  is  obtained  with  the  varnish  coats.  The 
cause  of  "  fire  checks"  (a  name  derived  from  that 
of  overheated  pottery)  is  solely  attributable  to 
the  application  of  one  coat  of  paint  being  put  on 
a  surface  of  paint  not  thoroughly  hardened. 
Though  similar  checks  may  be  seen  in  a  varnish 
coat  where  turpentine  has  been  used  to  clean  the 
surface,  or  been  mixed  with  the  varnish,  also 
where  glue-water  has  been  left  to  dry  upon  the 
varnish. 

Fire- Proof  Paint.— An  oxide  of  iron  pigment,  some- 
times called  Ohio  paint,  Grafton  paint,  Mineral 
paint,  etc.  It  is  generally  of  a  dark  red  color, 
very  inexpensive,  and  used  extensively  on  bridges, 
freight  cars,  etc. 

Firing  Off.— A  term  used  by  painters  for  the  use  of 

fire  or  hot  irons,  or  a  gas-jet  in  removing  paint 
and  varnish  from  a  surface.  (See  Burning  Off, 
Detergent  and  Ammonia.) 

Fitch. — A  small  brush  made  of  bristles  and  used 
more  particularly  for  such  work  as  lettering  on 


FLAKE  WHITE. 


131 


canvas  or  muslin,  and  by  artists  on  large  work, 
such  as  pictures  on  show  wagons  or  in  scene 
painting.    (See  Brushes.) 

Flaking;. — Denotes  the  separation  of  one  coat  of  color 
or  varnish  from  another,  or  of  the  entire  body  of 
paint  from  the  ground,  in  scales  or  flakes. 
"  Peeling  "  is  a  similar  difficulty,  the  paint  leav- 
ing the  ground  in  soft  particles,  as  the  bark  from 
a  stick.  The  cause  of  which  may  be  attributed  to  : 
1st,  oil  colors  laid  upon  a  part  of  the  work  where 
a  joint  was  not  properly  sealed  up,  so  as  to  ex- 
clude wet.  2d,  because  the  previous  coat  of  color 
had  not  been  mossed  or  paired  off  to  flatten  it 
properly.  3d,  because  the  work  had  been  done  on 
a  too  much  polished  surface,  especially  on  the 
rounded  surfaces  and  sharp  edges  of  the  wheels 
and  under  parts.  4th,  because  the  color  was 
non-adhesive,  or  non-elastic,  rendered  so  probably 
by  the  adulteration  of  the  oil  or  pigments  of  which 
it  was  composed  ;  or  because  it  was  intentionally 
made  quick  drying.  5th,  because  the  wood  was 
not  thoroughly  dry.  6th,  varnish  will  chip  or 
flake  off,  when  the  surface  has  been  washed  with 
hot  water  in  winter,  or  when  sleet  or  rain  has 
frozen  upon  it  in  a  thin  sheet,  and  allowed  to  re- 
main for  a  time,  also  when  glue  water  has  been 
applied  over  it. 

Flake  White.— White  lead  in  the  form  of  scales 
or  plates,  sometimes  gray  on  the  surface.  It 
takes  its  name  from  its  figure,  is  equal  or 
sometimes  superior  to  Cremz  white  (q.  v.)  and 
is  an  oxidized  carbonate  of  lead.  Flake  white 
is  prepared  by  exposing  this  lead  to  the  action  of 
vinegar  in  beds  of  fermented  tan.    It  is  blacked 


132 


FLATTING. 


by  sulphuretted  hydrogen,  hydro-sulphate  of  am- 
monia, and  consequently  needs  a  drying  and  pro- 
tecting vehicle.  It  has  no  injurious  action  on 
vegetable  or  other  colors.  When  free  from  pipe 
clay  or  sulphate  of  barytes  it  is  soluble  in  diluted 
nitric  acid  or  acetate  acid.  It  is  the  best  white  ex- 
tant for  oil  or  resin,  particularly  when  pure,  which 
is  generally  evidenced  by  exceeding  whiteness 
and  opacit}^.  However,  it  is  usually  adulterated 
with  sulphate  of  barytes,  chalk,  and  pipe  clay,  all 
which  trashy  substances  cause  it  to  darken  when 
blended  with  unctuous  or  resinous  particles. 
There  are  other  whites  of  lead  varying  in  body 
and  brilliancy,  and  even  obnoxious  to  the  action 
of  mephitic  vapors,  as  Roman  and  Venetian 
whites  and  sulphate  of  lead.  The  whites  of  bis- 
muth, pearl  and  antimony  are  injured  by  light  as 
well  as  by  mephitic  vapors. 
Flatting. — When  it  is  desired  that  paint  when  dry 
shall  present  a  fiat  or  dull  appearance  without 
any  gloss.  Carriage-painters  usually  substitute 
the  word  "dead"  for  flat. 

Special  care  is  necessary  in  laying  all  the  coats 
which  precede  the  flatting ;  they  must  be  evenly 
spread,  and  be  smoothened  with  sandpaper  in 
order  that  they  may  be  perfectly  level,  otherwise 
the  smallest  irregularities  will  appear  in  the  fin- 
ished surface. 

The  paint  used  by  house-painters  for  flattening 
consists  of  white  lead,  with  which  of  course  the 
necessary  coloring  matter  is  mixed,  turpentine 
alone  being  used  as  the  medium  with  which  the 
paint  is  thinned.  The  color  should  be  rather 
lighter  than  is  required,  as  it  darkens  a  little 
whilst  drying. 


FLOWING  QUALITY. 


133 


Japan  gold  size  is  sometimes  used  instead  of 
patent  driers  to  assist  or  hasten  drying". 

When  the  paint  is  spread  as  usual,  brushes 
called  stipplers  are  used  to  dab  against  the  wet 
paint,  producing  a  level  grain  over  the  whole  sur- 
face, something  like  the  tooth  on  drawing  paper. 

Some  painters  use  extra  care  in  spreading  the 
color  and  do  not  stipple  it  afterwards,  but  as  a 
general  thing  the  stippling  plan  is  best. 

Flockings. — A  fine  lint  or  dust  from  a  woven  woolen 
fabric  of  various  colors,  used  principally  by  sign- 
painters.  The  lettering  having  been  gilded,  all 
the  ground  outside  of  the  letters  is  painted  over 
with  a  tenacious  varnish  or  oil  paint  of  similar 
color  to  the  flockings  to  be  used,  then,  while  still 
wet,  the  flockings  are  sifted  upon  the  work,  and 
the  board  being  left  in  a  horizontal  position  for  a 
time,  the  flockings  adhere  to  the  ground,  when 
dry,  the  superflous  flockings  are  brushed  off,  and 
the  sign  then  has  the  appearance  of  velvet  or 
cloth. 

F logger. — A  sort  of  whip  used  for  dusting  away 
charcoal  after  a  sketch  is  completed  by  scene- 
painters.  It  is  made  with  several  odd  strips  of 
canvas  two  feet  in  length  bound  tightly  on  a  stick, 
or  old  broom  handle. 

Flowing  Quality-— One  of  the  essentials  of  good 
varnish.  By  floiving,  all  the  marks  of  the  brush 
are  obliterated  and  a  glass-like  surface  is  obtained. 
In  early  days  this  feature  was  not  recognized,  and 
resort  was  had  to  polish  carriage  bodies,  by  rub- 
bing with  pulverized  stone,  oil,  etc.,  but  now,  a 
varnish  that  will  not  flow  out  and  give  a  smooth 
glassy  surface  is  looked  upon  as  unfit  for  use. 


134 


FLUIDITY. 


Fluidity. — The  quality  of  being-  limpid,  thin,  as  oppos- 
ed to  gummy,  an  important  feature  in  good  var- 
nish. 

Fork. — An  iron  rod  formed  like  the  letter  Y  and 
having  its  three  ends  sharpened  to  a  point.  Used 
in  carriage  shops  as  a  prop  for  a  body  or  sleigh 
when  turned  on  its  side  or  end. 

Frankfort  Black.— A  sort  of  lamp-black  made  by 
burning  grape-vine  twigs  and  cuttings,  principally 
used  in  making  printers'  ink. 

French. — A  prefix  denoting  the  origin  of  various  pig- 
ments ;  as,  French  chalk,  French  green,  etc. 

French  Gray.  —  Simply  white,  tinted  with  ivory- 
black. 

French  Red. — A  local  name  given  in  New  York  for 
a  color  made  by  mixing  vermilion  with  Indian  red, 
then  glazing  with  carmine  when  the  ground  is 
dry. 

French  Ultramarine. — An  inferior  quality  of  ultra- 
marine, of  which  there  are  several  varieties,  but 
as  none  of  them  are  valuable  acquisitions  to 
the  paint  bench  we  leave  them  unnoticed. 

French  White. — (See  Blanc  D' Argent.) 

Fresco  Painting. — The  term  applied  to  painting 
executed  upon  plaster  while  it  is  still  wet  or  fresh. 
Many  celebrated  artists  and  well-known  writers 
have  maintained  that  fresco  is  the  only  way  in 
which  the  highest  efforts  in  art  should  be  embodi- 
ed. A  very  large  proportion  of  the  best  works  of 
the  Italian  schools,  particularly  those  of  Rome 
and  Florence,  are  done  in  this  manner ;  and  many 
of  the  chief  paintings  of  the  German  school  are 


fuller's  earth. 


135 


executed  in  fresco.  The  colors  used  are  mostly 
earths  or  minerals,  as  few  others  will  stand  the 
action  of  lime  ;  these  are  ground  and  applied  with 
pure  water.  The  ground  to  be  painted  on  is  the 
last  or  smooth  coating  of  plaster.  As  much  only 
as  can  he  painted  in  one  day  is  spread  on  immedi- 
ately before  the  painter  begins  to  work,  and  all 
that  he  does  not  paint  over  that  day  is  scraped 
off.  The  next  day  the  plasterer  joins  closely  an- 
other portion  of  plaster  for  the  painter  to  work 
upon. 

The  fresco  painting  in  the  United  States  is 
simply  distemper  painting  (which  see). 

Frise  Green. — A  pigment  made  of  sulphate  of 
copper  and  salammoniac. 

Frosting.— By  some  called  "  Diamond  dust,"  is 
made  by  blowing  glass  very  thin  and  then  break- 
ing it  or  crumbling  it  to  dust  or  small  pieces.  It 
is  sprinkled  upon  a  ground  of  white,  sized  or  made 
tacky  by  the  addition  of  oil  or  varnish  to  the  paint. 

Fuller's  Earth. — A  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of 
silica,  alumina  and  water,  with  a  little  magnesia, 
lime  and  peroxide  of  iron.  It  has  a  remarkable 
power  of  absorbing  oil  or  grease,  and  is  often  used 
as  a  detergent  for  removing-  varnish  from  paint- 
ings ;  applied  wet  with  water,  and  plastered  on  to 
the  thickness  of  an  inch  and  let  to  dry. 


G 


Gamboge. — A  gum  resin,  from  a  species  of  trees 
found  in  Cambodia,  it  is  of  a  brig-lit  yellow  color, 
opaque,  brittle,  and  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  a 
very  useful  water-color  pigment,  but  will  not  work 
in  oil. 

Gellert's  Green.— A  pigment  made  by  mixing 
cobalt  blue,  flowers  of  zinc  and  chrome  yellow. 

Gibson. — A  small  three-sided  rest  or  bench  for  sus- 
taining a  carriage  body  in  an  inclined  position 
while  undergoing  painting  or  rubbing. 

Gilder's  Cushion. — A  padded  palette  used  for 
spreading  and  cutting  gold  leaf.  It  is  generally 
about  eight  inches  by  five  in  size,  and  is  made  by 
stretching  a  piece  of  chamois  skin  over  a  piece  of 
board  previously  covered  with  baize. 

Gilder's  Knife. — A  tool  for  cutting  gold  leaf.  It  is 
shaped  similar  to  a  table  knife,  with  a  long  and 
flexible  blade ;  the  edge  must  be  perfectly  even 
and  not  sharp. 

Gilder's  Tip.— A  sort  of  flat  brush  for  lifting  and 
placing  gold  leaf.  It  is  made  by  placing  a  very 
thin  layer  of  camel's-hair  between  two  pieces  of 
card-board  and  glueing  all  together.  It  is  gener- 
ally from  three-and-a-half  to  four  inches  in  width. 


GILDING. 


137 


Iding. — Before  passing-  on  to  notice  the  methods  of 
gilding"  generally  adopted  by  sign  writers,  it  may 
be  here  pointed  out  that  an  inferior  kind  of  metal, 
in  imitation  of  gold  leaf,  is  procurable  at  a  lower 
price.  This,  however,  is  an  article  which  is  hard- 
ly worth  attention.  It  can  only  be  adopted  for 
temporary  announcements,  as  its  properties  are 
evanescent  and  it  ought  not  on  any  account  to  be 


Fig.  23.— Gilder's  Cushion  or  Palette. 


used  for  work  subjected  to  close  inspection,  be- 
cause it  always  presents  atawdiy,  "  Cheap  Jack" 
appearance,  however  dexterously  it  may  be  laid 
on.  Indeed,  it  never  approaches  pure  gold  leaf  in 
its  effects.  The  difference  between  the  two  is 
just  that  between  a  gold  sovereign  and  a  counter- 
feit one,  and  can  be  detected  by  any  experienced 
person.  Like  the  common  tinsel,  known  as 
"Dutch  metal,"  which  can  be  bought  at  a  still 


GILDING. 


lower  rate,  the  inferior  quality  of  gold  leaf  is 
chiefly  used  for  theatrical  scenery,  where  a  tem- 
porary brilliancy  is  required  and  durability  is  not 
an  object.  Dutch  metal  is  extensively  used  by 
shopkeepers  for  "gilding"  laurel  and  other  leaves, 
holly  berries  and  so  forth  for  Christmas  displays, 
and  formerly  designs  in  gingerbread  covered  with 
this  article  were  quite  an  "institution"  at  all 
kinds  of  fairs,  to  no  small  amazement  of  rustics 
and  children.  For  this  and  kindred  purposes, 
Dutch  metal  is  quite  as  effective  as  the  best  gold 
leaf,  and  owing  to  its  greater  thickness  it  is  much 
less  difficult  to  handle.  Indeed,  anyone  unaccus- 
tomed to  the  use  of  gold  leaf  could  not  hope  to  suc- 
ceed in  performing  with  it  the  apparently  easy 
task  of  gilding  even  gingerbread. 

The  metal  is  beaten  out  to  such  a  degree  of  tenuity 
that  it  requires  a  steady  and  skillful  hand  to  man- 
age it  satisfactorily,  and  this  can  only  be  acquired 
as  the  result  of  repeated  trials  and  many  vexa- 
tious failures.  Dutch  metal,  on  the  contrary,  is 
so  thick  as  to  be  manageable  (in  so  far  as  it  is 
capable  of  management)  by  any  person  however 
inexperienced.  Were  it  not  for  an  extreme  thin- 
ness of  gold  leaf,  it  would  not  be  possible  to  pre- 
vent the  multitudinous  joinings  from  showing. 
If  executed  by  an  unskilled  workman,  the  joinings 
of  the  gold  are  sometimes  perceptible  and  numer- 
ous fractures  caused  by  breaking  the  gold  leaf, 
technically  called  "spider  legs,"  are  here  and 
there  apparent.  But  if  the  gilding  be  skillfully 
and  property  performed,  no  matter  how  numerous 
the  pieces  of  gold  leaf  employed,  it  will  appear 
as  if  it  were  done  by  a  single  leaf,  instead  of  an 


GILDING. 


139 


aggregation  of  small  pieces,  often  of  irregular 
sizes  and  various  shapes. 

For  the  purpose  of  gilding,  the  tools  necessary 
are  a  cushion,  cutting  knife,  and  a  "tip,"  each  of 
which  calls  for  a  few  words  of  explanation. 

A  gilder's  cushion  is  a  flat  piece  of  wood,  meas- 
uring about  8  inches  by  5,  covered  first  with  baize 
and  then  with  soft  wash  leather,  which  is  drawn 
tightly  over  it.  An  edge  of  skirting  of  about  3 
inches  in  height  protects  three  of  the  sides,  and  is 
intended  to  keep  the  gold  leaves  from  flying  off 
the  cushion,  for  the  merest  draft  is  enough  to 
scatter  them  in  all  directions.  A  loop  is  then 
placed  under  the  cushion  for  the  insertion  of  the 
thumb  of  the  left  hand  to  hold  it  by  while  in  use, 
the  loop  answering  the  same  purpose  as  the  thumb 
hole  of  a  palette ;  and  sometimes  there  is  a  second 
loop  for  the  cutting  knife.  This  knife  is  used  for 
cutting  the  gold  leaf  upon  the  cushion.  It  has  a 
long  and  flexible  blade,  with  a  perfectly  straight 
and  smooth  edge  and  must  be  kept  very  clean,  or, 
instead  of  cutting  the  gold,  it  will  merely  tear  it 
and  crumble  it  up  rendering  its  use  a  matter  of 
difficulty.  A  "tip"  is  a  sort  of  flat  brush,  made 
of  a  thin  layer  of  some  soft  hair,  and  held 
together  between  two  pieces  of  pasteboard.  This 
brush  can  be  obtained  of  different  widths,  and  of 
various  lengths  of  hair.  It  is  used  for  removing 
the  gold  leaf  from  the  cushion  to  the  part  to  be 
gilded.  The  tip  should  be  drawn  lightly  across 
the  face  or  hair,  and  then  placed  upon  the  gold, 
when  the  moisture  on  the  brush  derived 
from  the  face,  slight  though  it  be,  will 
cause  the  gold  to  adhere  to  it  sufficiently  to  enable 
the  workman  to  lift  it  up  and  deposit  on  the  sur- 


GILDING. 


face  prepared  for  its  reception.  If  a  leaf  of  gold 
has  been  cut  in  a  dozen  pieces  by  the  cutting-  knife, 
each  piece  may  be  placed  in  its  position  by  means 
of  the  tip. 

Some  sign  writers  adopt  this  plan,  which  is  that 
most  commonly  practised  by  experienced  gilders 
for  outside  work.  They  shake  out  about  a  dozen 
leaves  of  gold  upon  the  cushion,  put  them  on  one 
side  against  the  parchment  screen,  then  lift  one  leaf 
with  the  cutting  knife  to  the  middle  of  the  cushion, 
and  when  it  has  been  flattened  by  a  slight  puff  of 
the  breath,  it  is  cut  to  the  desired  dimensions,  and 
lifted  and  placed  in  position  with  the  tip.  (There 
is  required  in  this  gentle  puff  of  breath  a  something 
which  will  at  first  greatly  perplex  the  beginner. 
We  can  only  define  it  as  " knack,"  to  be  acquired 
by  experience.  When  performed  by  a  skillful 
workman,  it  is  apparently  the  simplest  thing  in 
the  world,  but  a  great  many  of  the  puffs  at  the 
outside  will  result  in  disappointment  and  loss  of 
the  leaves  of  gold.  There  is  no  royal  road  to  the 
acquisition  of  this  art,  which  is  apt  to  deceive  the 
uninitiated  by  its  apparent  simplicity  ;  but  the  be- 
ginner must  expect  to  pay  the  usual  forfeit  de- 
manded of  inexperience,  before  he  becomes  a  pro- 
ficient gilder  from  the  cushion.)  Of  course  piece 
after  piece  is  placed  on  the  parts  to  be  gilded,  in 
the  same  way,  until  the  whole  space  is  covered. 
The  leaf  is  then  rubbed  over  gentty  or  rather 
pressed  against  the  gold -size,  with  a  pad  of  cotton 
wool,  by  which  means  the  superfluous  pieces  of 
gold  are  removed  and  the  jagged  edges  smoothed. 
Other  sign  writers,  again,  when  gilding  out  of 
doors,  prefer  to  take  the  gold  leaf  from  the  book 
without  cutting  it  at  all.    They  turn  back  the 


GILDING. 


141 


paper  leaves,  and  place  the  gold  leaf  direct  against 
the  surface,  which  has  been  prepared  for  it,  By 
following-  this  plan,  however,  a  great  portion  of 
the  gold  leaf  is  wasted,  and,  as  it  seems,  without 
any  corresponding  advantage.  The  slighest  draft 
or  current  of  air  renders  it  a  matter  of  no  small 
difficulty  to  proceed  in  the  manner  here  indicated, 
and,  indeed,  it  would  be  impossible  to  do  so  if  there 
were  the  least  wind,  unless  the  workman  was 
carefully  sheltered  from  it  by  some  kind  of  awning 
or  close  covering.  The  same  applies  also  to  the 
method  of  gilding  out  of  doors  with  tip  and  cush- 
ion, already  described,  (In  speaking  of  the  cover- 
ing under  which  gilders  in  exposed  situations 
work,  it  may  be  remarked  that  many  persons  have 
an  idea  that  the  object  is  to  keep  their  art  a  secret, 
whereas,  in  reality,  it  is  a  matter  of  necessity.) 

There  is,  however,  another  method  of  gilding 
which  has  only  of  late  years  become  known  to 
and  adopted  by  the  sign  writer,  and  it  possesses 
so  many  advantages,  and  is  so  easy  of  applica- 
tion, that,  for  all  practical  purposes,  it  is  most 
preferable  for  the  sign  writer,  who  is  almost  in- 
variably called  upon  to  gild  on  a  flat  surface.  If 
it  were  not  so  the  method  about  to  be  explained 
would  be  valueless,  because  it  cannot  be  applied 
advantageously  to  carved  or  moulded  work. 

The  writer  should  procure  a  clean  sheet  of 
silver  or  tissue  paper,  of  not  too  great  a  body,  and 
rub  it  over  on  one  side  only  with  a  piece  of  white 
wax  candle,  or  even  beeswax  will  do  as  well  as 
anything.  This  should  be  held  between  the 
thumb  and  forefinger  of  the  right  hand,  and 
rubbed  rather  briskly  over  the  surface  of  the 
tissue  paper,  which  should  be  placed  upon  a  book 


142 


GILDING. 


or  something-  flat,  so  that  the  wax  is  spread  even- 
ly throughout.    The  paper  which  has  thus  been 
rubbed  will,  when  held  sideways  to  the  light,  be 
seen  to  have  a  glossy  surface,  and  will  possess  a 
certain  "  tackiness  "  or  sticky  quality,  scarcely 
perceptible  to  the  touch,  but  sufficient  to  cause 
the  gold  leaf  to  adhere  to  it.    After  a  whole  sheet 
of  paper  has  been  waxed  as  described,  it  should 
be  cut  into  squares  a  little  larger  than  the  leaves 
of  the  book  of  gold.    This  having  been  done,  the 
gold  leaf  book  should  be  carefully  opened,  and  the 
waxed  side  of  the  tissue  paper  gently  pressed 
against  the  gold  with  the  hand.    On  removing 
the  paper  the  gold  leaf  will  be  found  attached  to 
it.    Each  leaf  of  gold  should  be  taken  out  in  the 
same  way  until  the  whole  book  is  emptied.  The 
gold  leaf,  being  thus  secured  upon   the  tissue 
paper  is  ready  for  use.    It  must  be  evident  that 
the  difficulty  experienced  through  the  extraordin- 
ary thinness  of  the  gold,  is  by  this  means  to  a 
great  extent  overcome.    The  tissue  paper  with 
the  gold  attached  can  be  handled  by  any  person, 
however  inexperienced,  and  may  be  used  over  and 
over  again. 

Let  it  be  supposed  that  the  letters  to  be  gilded 
have  been  written  in  the  most  suitable  material, 
and  that  they  are  ready  to  receive  the  gold  leaf. 
All  that  the  writer  has  to  do  is  to  take  up  the 
tissue  paper  with  his  left  hand,  and  to  place  it 
with  the  gilded  side  to  the  letters,  and  having 
rubbed  the  back  lightly  with  the  right  hand,  the 
gold  will  come  off  the  paper  and  adhere  firmly  to 
the  mordant  with  which  the  lettering  has  been 
written.  Besides  the  simplicity  of  this  method  of 
gilding,  another  great  advantage  it  possesses  is 


GILDING. 


143 


the  small  amount  of  waste  that  takes  place.  The 
tissue  paper  being-  semi-transparent,  the  gold  leaf 
shows  through  it,  and  the  operator  can  see  where 
any  portion  of  the  gold  adheres  to  the  paper, 
and  can  accordingly  place  it  on  such  portions  of 
the  work  as  it  will  best  fit,  without  an  undue 
number  of  joinings,  though  by  this  process  if  the 
g-old  leaf  be  good,  not  the  slightest  trace  of  any 
joinings  is  discernible.  It  will  readily  be  under- 
stood that  every  particle  of  the  gold  can  be  made 
use  of. 

In  addition  to  these  advantages,  this  method  of 
gilding  possesses  other  recommendations  which 
are  deserving  of  mention. 

In  the  first  place,  the  labor  of  affixing*  the  gold 
leaf  to  the  tissue  paper,  and  subsequently  to  the 
lettering,  can  be  performed  by  an  apprentice,  or 
anyone  who  would  utterly  fail  if  called  upon  to 
use  it  in  either  of  the  ways  previously  described. 
Then,  again,  as  already  intimated,  gilding  from 
the  tip  or  cushion,  or  from  the  book  without  cut- 
ting, cannot  be  effected  out  of  doors  if  there  hap- 
pens to  be  any  force  of  wind.  Indeed,  the  ordi- 
nary draft  or  current  of  air  which  frequently  passes 
through  a  street  is  a  serious  hindrance  to  the  op- 
erations of  the  gilder  by  either  of  these  two  pro- 
cesses, which  even  now  may  be  called  the  "  common 
processes  ";  for  the  plan  recommended,  simple  as 
it  is,  has  not  long  been  discovered,  and  some  of 
the  old  school  of  workmen  still  adopt  these  cum- 
brous and  wasteful  methods  of  working1.  In  either 
of  the  foregoing  methods  the  gold  leaf  should  be 
g*ently  dabbed  over  with  a  pad  of  cotton  wool, 
which  will  smooth  the  surface  of  the  gold,  and  re- 
move all  superfluous  pieces  of  gold  leaf. 


144 


GILDING. 


There  is  one  thing-  preliminary  to  the  process  of 
laying*  on  the  gold  which  has  not  yet  been  noticed. 
A  newly  painted  surface  is,  of  course  sticky,  or 
what  is  technically  called  "tacky";  and  if  the 
gold  leaf  were  to  be  applied  to  such  a  surface,  it 
would  adhere,  or  "  hang  "  as  it  is  called,  to  parts 
of  the  ground  color  where  the  mordant  had  not 
touched,  and  where  the  gold  was  not  required.  It 
is  needful  therefore,  before  the  writing  is  even 
marked  out  that  the  newly  painted  surface  should 
be  "  pounced  " — that  is,  dabbed  over  lightly  with 
dry  whiting ;  but  care  should  be  taken  that  the 
loose  particles  are  dusted  off  carefully.  If  the 
ground  be  a  dark  one,  this  pouncing  (which  is 
best  done  by  placing  the  whiting  in  a  linen  bag 
and  making  a  kind  of  pad  or  ball,  which  should  be 
dabbed  over  the  work)  will  so  far  lighten  it  that 
the  writer  will  be  able  to  distinguish  any  lines  that 
he  may  make  with  the  sable  pencil  charged  with 
size,  and  the  size  will  restore  the  ground  to  its 
original  color.  But,  if  the  ground  be  a  light  one, 
the  pouncing  will  not  have  this  effect,  and  hence 
it  becomes  necessary  to  mix  some  kind  of  color 
with  the  size  to  enable  the  workman  to  make  cer- 
tain that  he  has  thoroughly  covered  the  portion 
to  be  gilded.  The  whiting  is  removed  from  the 
ground,  after  the  gold  leaf  is  applied,  by  means  of 
a  damp  chamois  leather. 

The  mordants  used  for  gilding  are  of  different 
kinds.  Picture-frame  gilders  generally  make  use 
of  what  is  technically  called  gilders'  size,  made  of 
fat  oil,  in  which  yellow  ochre  has  been  ground. 
This  is,  under  certain  circumstances  a  good  ma- 
terial for  the  purpose  of  the  sign  writer,  but  it  is 
too  thick  for  general  adoption,  especialty  in  cold 


GILDING  ON  GLASS. 


145 


weather,  when  it  is  unmanageable  with  the  sable 
pencil.  In  hot  weather  it  may  be  used  to  advan- 
tage. The  leaf  must  not  be  applied  to  this  size  for 
at  least  24  hours  after  its  application,  and  it  will 
remain  tacky  for  two  or  three  days. 

When  work  has  to  be  done  quickly,  a  size  may 
be  made  from  one  of  the  following-  formulas  : 

First — Size  which  will  be  ready  for  the  gold  in 
two  hours  :  one  pint  permanent  wood  filling,  half- 
pint  crown  coach  japan,  or  one-quarter  pint  japan 
gold-size. 

Second — Size  to  let  set  over-night  before  apply- 
ing the  gold  :  one  pint  permanent  wood  filling, 
one-quarter  pint  crown  coach  japan,  or  one- 
eighth  pint  japan  gold-size. 

Third — Size  for  quick  work  or  jobbing  :  one 
part  permanent  wood  filling,  and  three  parts  of 
japan  gold-size,  or  a  little  less  of  brown  japan,  if 
preferred. 

Fourth — Size  for  ordinary  work,  moderately 
quick  drying  :  half-pint  wearing  body  varnish, 
and  one  pint  crown  coach  japan. 

Fifth — Size  for  extra-durable  work,  not  to  be 
varnished  :  take  boiled  linseed  oil  in  a  saucepan, 
and  heat  it  until  it  catches  fire  ;  allow  it  to  burn  a 
minute,  then  smother  the  blaze  and  let  cool ;  it  is 
now  ready  for  use. 

Sixth — Size  for  almost  immediate  gilding  :  one 
part  quick  leveling  varnish,  and  two  parts  touch- 
ing-up  glazing. 

Iding  on  Class. — The  process  of  gilding  upon 
this  material  is  as  follows  :  Draw  out  upon  a 
sheet  of  white  paper  the  letters  or  ornament  re- 
quired, and  fill  in  the  sketch  so  made  with  black 
paint,  so  that  the  pattern  is  visible  upon  both  sides 


146 


GILDING  ON  GLASS. 


of  the  paper.  Reverse  the  paper  and  fix  it  by  its 
edges  to  the  hack  of  the  glass  with  paste.  Thor- 
oughly clean  the  glass  upon  its  face  with  wet 
whiting  and  a  silk  handkerchief,  place  it  in  a  slant- 
ing position  if  possible,  and  commence  to  gild.  The 
mordant  used  for  fixing  the  gold  leaf  to  the  glass 
is  made  thus  :  Take  some  fine  isinglass  (as  much 
as  will  cover  a  sixpence)  and  put  it  in  a  teacup, 
fill  the  cup  half  full  with  boiling  water,  and  stir  ; 
pour  in  while  the  water  is  still  warm  enough  alco- 
hol to  fill  up  the  cup,  and  then  strain  the  mixture 
through  a  clean  silk  handkerchief.  Wash  on  this 
mixture  upon  the  parts  to  be  gilded  with  a  camel's- 
hair  brush,  wait  until  the  surface  is  sticky,  and 
then  apply  the  gold  leaf  as  in  all  gilding.  Cut  the 
gold  leaf  to  the  size  of  the  gilding  before  applying, 
unless  the  surface  to  be  gilded  is  not  wider  and 
higher  than  three  inches  or  four  inches  ;  when  so 
small  as  this  lay  on  the  gold  in  squares  without 
troubling  about  the  shapes  of  the  ornaments  and 
letters.  Gild  from  the  top  of  the  glass,  placing 
the  first  piece  of  gold  at  the  highest  part  of  the 
design,  and  be  careful  each  succeeding  sheet  over- 
laps the  one  last  laid.  Any  gaps  left  in  the  put- 
ting on  of  the  gold  leaf  will  show  when  the  work 
is  finished,  and,  therefore,  the  worker  must  put 
on  plent}^  of  gold  leaf  and  see  that  no  space,  how- 
ever small,  is  left  unclecorated. 

Press  the  gold  leaf  gently  to  the  glass  with  a 
cotton  wool  pad,  and  leave  the  glass  in  a  dry  and 
warm  room  until  the  gilding  is  dry,  which  is 
known  by  its  looking  burnished  and  no  longer 
crinkly  and  dead.  Rub  it  in  this  state  with  cotton 
wool  to  increase  its  burnished  appearance,  and  to 
remove  the  loose  pieces  of  gold  leaf  between  the 


GILDING  ON  GLASS. 


147 


letters  and  ornament.  The  gilding-  will  now  show 
many  imperfections,  and  the  various  joints  where 
the  gold  leaf  has  been  cut  will  he  visible.  These 
will  require  to  be  manipulated.  Re-size  the  whole 
of  the  gilding  with  the  isinglass  mordant,  putting 
that  on  with  great  care,  so  as  not  to  remove  the 
gold  leaf,  and,  when  it  is  "tacky,"  re-gild  the 
whole,  following  out  the  process  of  the  first  gild- 
ing in  every  detail.  When  the  gold  is  quite  dry, 
put  on  from  two  to  four  coats  of  size  (letting  one 
dry  before  applying  another),  in  order  to  increase 
the  brilliancy  of  the  gold.  The  longer  the  gold 
leaf  is  left  in  this  stage  upon  the  glass  the  more 
firmly  will  it  adhere.  A  damp  sponge  will  remove 
it  the  first  day,  but  after  two  months  the  alcohol 
will  have  caused  it  to  adhere  so  firmly  that  it  will 
be  most  difficult  to  detach  it.  A  week  should  be 
allowed  to  elapse  between  the  gilding  and  the 
painting.  The  outline  of  the  ornament,  etc.,  must 
be  transferred  to  the  gold  surface  as  the  next 
stage.  To  do  this  rub  dry  whiting  over  the  front 
side  of  the  paper  pattern,  place  this  face  down- 
ward upon  the  gilding,  -and  go  over  every  outline 
with  a  pointed  and  hard  pencil.  The  whiting  will 
stick  to  the  gold  where  it  has  been  pressed  down 
by  the  pencil,  and  upon  removing  the  pattern  and 
blowing  off  the  loose  whiting  clear  white  lines  will 
remain  upon  the  gilding. 

The  next  process  is  to  paint  the  back  of  the  gold 
over  with  japan  black,  such  as  is  used  by  coach 
builders.  For  this  purpose  use  a  sable  writing 
pencil,  and  keep  the  paint  within  the  white  out- 
lines, and  quite  up  to  them.  If  on  looking  on  the 
right  side  of  the  glass  the  black  paint  should  show 
through  the  gilding  another  coat  of  size  must  be 


148 


GILDING  PORCELAIN. 


put  on  before  the  black  paint  is  applied,  as  these 
size  coats  prevent  the  paint  from  penetrating* 
through  the  gilding.  When  the  black  paint  has 
thoroughly  dried  wash  off  all  the  gold  leaf  not  re- 
quired with  a  sponge  and  warm  water.  The  orna- 
ments and  letters  gilded  upon  the  glass  can  be 
straightened  and  rendered  sharp  at  their  edges, 
if  they  look  ragged,  by  being  scraped  with  a  knife 
or  sharp  chisel,  after  the  black  paint  is  dry.  Col- 
ored painting,  such  as  broad  shadows  to  letters 
or  additional  foliage  to  ornaments,  paint  on  the 
glass  after  the  black  background  to  the  gilding 
is  dry  ;  use  ordinary  oil  colors  thinned  with  oil 
and  a  very  little  turpentine  for  these,  and  keep 
the  edges  of  the  shadows  straight  and  clear  by 
the  help  of  a  straight-edge  and  a  pointed  stick, 
cutting  the  edge  sharp  with  these  while  the  color 
is  wet  and  wiping  away  with  a  rag  the  superfluous 
color.  Paint  backgrounds  on  the  same  glass  in 
oil  colors,  using  a  large  brush  when  the  ornamen- 
tation is  dry.  Mix  varnish  with  the  colors  or  buy 
them  ready  prepared. 

Gilding  Porcelain.— Dissolve  in  linseed  oil  an 
equal  weight  of  copal ;  add  as  much  turpentine 
as  will  enable  you  to  appty  the  size  as  thin  as 
possible  to  the  parts  to  be  gilded.  Place  the 
article  in  a  stove  oven  until  it  will  almost  burn 
the  fingers,  then  the  size  becomes  adhesive,  and 
the  gold  leaf  laid  upon  it  will  stick.  When  cool, 
brush  off  the  superfluous  gold,  and  burnish  with  a 
steel  or  dog's  tooth  burnisher,  taking  care  to  in- 
terpose a  piece  of  India  paper  between  the  gold 
and  the  burnisher. 

Class  Paper. — The  name  given  to  fine  sandpaper  by 
decorators.    2.    A  fine  quality  of  rubbing  paper 


GLAZING. 


149 


made  of  pulverized  glass  in  place  of  sand ;  the 
same  as  emery  paper  is  made  with  emery  powder, 
etc. 

Glass  Frame  Holders. — A  convenience  for  holding* 
frames  of  a  carriage  while  painting  or  varnishing 
them,  consisting  of  two  uprights  of  hard  wood 
framed  into  foot  pieces,  and  a  tie  piece.  The  up- 
rights should  be  at  least  4  inches  wide  and  2  inch- 
es thick,  tapering  at  the  top  to  2  inches  square, 


Fig.  24.— Glass  Frame  Holder. 


framed  30  inches  apart,  the  whole  4  feet  high.  On 
one  upright  a  sharpened  pin  is  inserted,  and  on 
the  other  a  cranked  screw  with  sharpened  point, 
is  fitted.  Then,  the  frame  or  other  object  placed 
upon  the  point,  and  pressed  by  the  screw  is  held 
in  such  a  way  that  it  may  be  turned  upon  either 
side  to  varnish  or  paint  it.  Our  engraving  so  well 
illustrates  this  contrivance  that  further  descrip- 
tion is  unnecessary. 
Glazing. — The  word  glazing  seems  to  be  a  triplet  in 
the  painter's  vocabulary.  When  a  pane  of  glass 
is  put  in  place  it  is  called  glazing.  When  soft 
putty  is  forced  into  the  pores  of  wood,  or  any 


150 


GLAZING. 


rough  place  is  filled  with  putty,  it  is  also  called 
glazing,  and  when  the  transparent  coating  of 
color  is  put  upon  the  painted  surface,  it  is  also 
called  glazing,  and  unless  one  is  conversant  with 
the  art  of  painting  he  will  be  unable  to  know 
which  of  these  is  meant  when  he  hears  the  word. 
The  glazing  of  color  is  an  art  that  but  few  acquire 
in  perfection,  owing  perhaps  to  wrong  ideas  in 
mixing  the  glazing.  Carmine  is  an  expensive 
pigment,  and  for  that  reason  glazing  is  resorted 
to,  while  on  the  other  hand  Yellow  lake  is  inex- 
pensive, and  is  used  as  a  glazing  to  enrich  the 
ground  color.  Blue  also  is  made  richer  by  glaz- 
ing than  when  the  pure  ultramarine  is  used  as  a 
body  color. 

The  most  beautiful  lake  colors  are  made  by 
glazing  dark  reds  with  carmine,  and  this  is  done 
not  so  much  to  make  a  nice  color  as  to  make  a 
durable  one. 

The  peculiarities  of  glazing  are  that  it  be  mixed 
to  set  slowly,  to  dry  hard  like  rubbing  varnish, 
and  to  flow  smoothly  without  heavy  flows  or 
clouds.  To  make  a  nice  carmine  job,  first  paint  a 
smooth  ground  of  vermilion,  the  deep  English 
vermilion  being  preferable,  although  it  does  not 
cover  so  well  as  the  light  or  pale  grade  of  same. 
The  color  being  on  and  dry,  add  to  the  vermilion 
color-and- varnish  a  little  carmine  to  deepen  and 
enrich  it,  and  apply.  When  dry  rub  the  surface 
smooth,  for  in  glazing  any  imperfections  will  be 
multiplied  and  made  to  appear  as  a  mountain 
from  a  molehill.  Pulverized  pumice-stone  and 
water  cannot  be  used '  successfully  after  the  glaz- 
ing is  done  ;  therefore  great  care  must  be  taken  to 
have  the  surface  smooth  before  the  glazing  is  at- 


GLAZING. 


151 


tempted.  Mix  the  dry  carmine — a  lump  as  large 
as  a  walnut,  will  be  sufficient  for  a  light  buggy 
gear — with  some  good  rubbing  varnish,  and  grind 
it  as  fine  as  possible,  then  add  more  finishing 
varnish  until  the  color  is  simply  a  colored  varnish  ; 
if  too  strong  in  color  it  will  be  streaked.  Now 
add  a  few  drops  of  raw  oil  to  prevent  its  setting 
too  quickly  ;  use  a  flat  badger-hair  brush,  and  do 
but  a  small  part  of  the  work  at  once,  that  is  on  a 
buggy  gear  ;  flow  it  on  to  say  one-half  a  wheel, 
and  lay  it  off  quickly,  then  do  the  other  half,  and 
make  as  few  movements  of  the  brush  as  possible, 
and  never  after  it  begins  to  set.  Clean  up  every 
part  as  you  go  along,  being  sure  to  rub  the  brush 
around  every  nut,  end  of  spokes,  etc.,  and  proceed 
thus  till  all  is  done,  keeping  the  wheels  turning 
all  the  time  slowly  until  the  varnish  is  set.  Ex- 
perience only  can  tell  one  how  to  do  glazing. 
One  will  flow  it  on  one  spoke  only  ;  another  can 
do  the  whole  wheel  before  laying  it  off,  and  so  on. 
Yellow  lake  is  used  in  a  similar  way.  Over  a 
dark  bottle  green  it  gives  a  beautiful  tone  or 
hue,  over  yellow  it  gives  a  beautiful  greenish 
yellow.  The  Nile  greens  and  rich  bottle  greens 
seen  on  many  carriage  panels  are  made  by  glaz- 
ing with  yellow  lake.  Bright  blue  is  made  by 
glazing  with  Prussian  blue  ground  with  ultra- 
marine. 

Glazing,  when  applied  to  colors  by  the  carriage- 
painter,  signifies  the  act  of  laying  transparent 
colors  ^ver  a  previously  prepared  groundwork. 
Carmine,  the  various  colored  lakes,  and  verdigris 
have  not  sufficient  covering  power  or  body  to  pro- 
duce a  solid  piece  of  painting,  therefore  they  re- 
quire  a   foundation    suited    to   their  respec- 


152 


GLOSS. 


tive  colors.  All  painting"  of  this  kind  is  called 
glazing-. 

In  the  Eastern  States  painters  speak  of  glaz- 
ing with  putty ;  by  this  they  mean  the  act  of 
puttying  a  surface  all  over,  so  as  to  speedily  fill 
the  grain  and  pores  of  the  wood.  In  the  West- 
ern States  this  puttying  process  is  called 
"  plastering." 

Gloss. — A  mixture  of  zinc  white  and  white  damar 
varnish,  used  as  a  sort  of  color-and-varnish  over 
white  paint  in  houses,  also  by  painters  on  stages 
and  car  interiors.  Carriage-painters  use  zinc 
white  mixed  with  a  light  colored  varnish — hard 
diwing  body — for  painting"  white  work.  The 
ground  being  formed  of  white  lead,  the  zinc  color- 
and-varnish  is  put  on  to  the  number  of  three 
coats  sometimes  and  then  the  gloss  is  removed  by 
rubbing  with  pumice  powder  until  an  egg-shell 
gloss  is  produced.  If  striping  or  ornamenting  is 
put  on  this  ground,  the  stripes  and  ornaments  are 
pencil  varnished — the  durability  of  the  ground  is 
said  to  be  greater  than  if  the  lustre  was  left  upon 
it.  Zinc  white  is  not  apt  to  turn  yellow  as  quickly 
as  white  lead,  and  therefore  finds  favor  with  car- 
riage-painters, for  all  white  work,  hearses,  and 
sleighs  particularly.  House-painters  use  zinc 
gloss  for  a  finish  of  white  on  parlors  and  fine  work, 
laying  a  coat  over  a  ground  of  white  lead. 

Glossy. — A  paint-ground  that  shows,  when  dry,  too 
great  a  gloss,  and  denotes  that  too  much  oil  or 
varnish  was  used  in  the  mixture.  Tb£  effect  of 
which  is  to  cause  the  subsequent  coat  to  crack  or 
crawl  or  give  trouble  in  some  other  way. 

Gold  Color. — Yellow  ochre,  burnt  sienna,  raw  um- 
ber, and  white,  may  be  mixed  so  near  the  color  of 


GOLD  LEAF. 


153 


gold  in  half  shadow,  that  a  gold  pattern  upon  it 
will  not  show  in  some,  lights. 

Cold  Lacquer. — A  varnish  used  by  gilt  molding- 
makers  to  color  silver  leaf  so  that  it  will  have 
every  appearance  of  gold  ;  made  as  follows  : 

Tji, .  Seed  lac  3  oz.;  turmeric,  1  oz.;  dragon's  blood, 
i  oz.;  alcohol,  1  pint ;  digest  together  for  a  week 
with  frequent  shaking,  decant  and  filter.  It  is 
customary  to  dissolve  the  resins  (pale  lac  or  san- 
darac)  and  the  coloring  matters  separately,  so  that 
at  any  time  a  lacquer  of  a  given  tint  may  be  pro- 
duced by  their  mixture.  The  solution  of  coloring 
matter  should  be  concentrated. 

Gold  Leaf. — Gold  rolled  and  beaten  into  thin  sheets. 
Upon  entering  a  gold-beating  establishment  the 
vistor's  attention  is  first  attracted  by  the  din  of 
numerous  hammers  weighing  from  eight  to  eigh- 
teen pounds  apiece,  falling  under  the  skillful  grasp 
of  the  sturdy  pounders,  on  the  packs  in  which  is 
the  precious  metal.  The  men  resemble  so  many 
blacksmiths  at  the  anvil,  except  that  the  blows 
are  less  rapid  and  the  strokes  more  measured  and 
regular,  and  there  is  more  rebound  to  the  ham- 
mers. Then,  too,  without  changing  the  monot- 
ony of  the  strike,  the  gold-beater  shifts  his  ham- 
mer from  one  hand  to  the  other,  and  turns  the 
little  bunch  of  skin  on  which  it  descends  first  to 
one  side  and  then  to  the  opposite  one,  and  then 
'  back  again,  for  he  cannot  pound  steadily  in  one 
place  ;  his  packet  must  be  kept  in  motion.  The 
first  |tool  used  to  break  down  the  gold  is  called  a 
"cutch,"  three-and-a-half  inches  square,  made  of 
vellum  or  a  straw-colored  vegetable  parchment 
containing  180  sheets  ;  and  a  second  tool  used 
(called  shoder),  composed  of  TOO  sheets  of  gold- 


154 


GOLD  LEAF. 


beater's  skin,  made  of  a  thin  elastic  skin,  a 
membrane  taken  from  an  ox.  After  this  tool 
(shoder)  has  been  used  about  200  times  as  a 
mould,  and  as  the  third  and  finishing  tool,  and 
when  no  longer  fit  for  the  finishing  part  of  the 
work,  is  cut  down  to  four-and-a-half  inches  square, 
and  used  for  the  second  reduction  in  substance  of 
the  gold.  The  third  tool,  are  moulds  containing 
850  to  900  sheets  of  skin  five-and-a-quater  inches 
square,  and  are  of  very  fragile  nature,  easily  torn 
and  extremely  sensitive  to  changes  in  the  atmos- 
phere. 

The  brime,  or  talc,  used  by  gold-beaters  to 
cleanse  the  skins  before  working,  is  a  marine  de- 
posit found,  it  is  believed,  only  in  French  Flanders. 

In  addition  to  the  before  named  working  mate- 
rials employed  in  the  manufacture  of  gold  leaf  are 
crucibles,  acids,  pearl  ashes,  salt,  saltpetre,  borax, 
gum,  mercury,  and  Malacca  cane. 

The  metal  being  alloyed,  is  melted,  poured  into 
an  ingot,  flatted  between  steel  rollers,  till  it  at- 
tains the  shape  of  a  ribbon  of  the  thickness  of 
stout  wrapping  paper.  Two  ounces  and  ten  penny- 
weights, tro}^,  is  then  given  to  the  workmen  to 
produce  2,000  leaves  of  gold  three  and  three-eights 
inches  square  and  return  33  dwt.  debris. 

Having  annealed  the  gold  the  beater  proceeds 
to  divide  it  in  pieces  averaging  seven  grains  each, 
making  about  165  or  170  pieces — these  are  placed 
separately  between  the  leaves  of  the  "  cutch ;" 
care  being  taken  to  place  them  in  the  centre,  two 
bands  of  parchment  are  then  placed  around  the 
cutch  and  a  sixteen  or  eighteen  pound  hammer 
is  used  to  beat  it  until  the  gold  covers  the  entire 
square  ;  this  hammering  occupies  fifteen  or  twenty 


GOLD  LEAF. 


155 


minutes.  The  gold  is  then  taken  out  with  wooden 
pincers  and  twelve  sheets  placed  on  a  cushion 
(made  of  calf -skin)  evenly  on  each  other  they  are 
folded  over  a  knife,  cut,  turned  again  and  cut,  di- 
viding each  leaf  into  four  equal  quarters,  and  so 
on  till  all  are  cut ;  the  165  pieces  are  now  660  pieces 
or  quarters.  Having  dried  in  hot  presses  the 
"shoder,"  these  quarters  are  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  shoder,  one  piece  of  gold  between  each  skin, 
and  beat  with  a  twelve-pound  hammer  until  the 
gold  has  covered  the  skin.  Here  the  workmen 
reduces  the  weight,  so  as  to  correct  any  irregu- 
larity which  may  have  arisen  in  dividing  the  gold, 
by  beating  the  leaf  out  of  the  edges  of  the  shoder, 
the  same  being  rubbed  off  with  a  sponge,  is  placed 
away  till  the  whole  piece  is  completed.  The  beat- 
ing of  the  shoder  occupies  two  hours.  The  moulds 
are  prepared  for  work  by  beating  them  in  plains 
(composed  of  stout  old  hand- made  paper,  each 
skin  being  .placed  separately)  for  one  hour  with  an 
eighteen-pound  hammer.  The  mould  is  then  dried 
in  hot  presses,  rubbing  each  skin  eight  times  with 
a  hare',;  foot  and  some  brime  calcined  and  reduced 
to  a  fine  powder.  When  pressed  again  they  are 
ready  for  the  gold.  A  reed  of  Malacca  cane  made 
in  the  shape  and  size  of  a  table-knife  is  used  to  di- 
vide the  leaf  into  four  equal  parts,  the  660  pieces 
or  quarters  from  the  shoder  making  2,840  pieces 
or  quarters,  and  beat  again  making  the  above 
number  of  leaves.  These  quarters  are  now  placed 
in  the  mould  and  beaten,  then  heated,  cooled,  and 
beaten  again  for  twelve  hours  with  a  seven-pound 
hammer.  The  moulds  being  beat,  the  leaves  are 
taken  out  one  at  a  time,  placed  on  a  cushion,  cut 
by  a  machine  which  trims  off  the  edges,  leaving 


156 


GOLD  LEAF. 


the  leaf  three-and-three-eighth  inches  square. 
These  are  placed  in  books  carefully  dried,  25 
leaves  in  each  book.  Young*  girls  are  generally 
employed  to  put  the  leaf  in  books ;  the  work- 
woman opens  the  mould  and  with  a  pair  of 
wooden  pincers  trims  and  patches  any  imperfect 
leaves,  then  places  it  in  the  little  paper  book,  the 
leaves  of  which  have  been  rubbed  over  with  red 
ochre  to  prevent  the  adhesion  of  the  gold.  She 
fills  these  books  for  two-and-a-half  cents  each, 
and  a  fair  day's  work  is  sixty  books.  There 
are  soy  ~  al  colors  of  gold  leaf,  the  palest,  gen- 
erally 1;  own  as  "pure  virgin,''  but  a  few  degrees 
removed  from  white,  approximating  to  silver, 
while  Tie  "deep,"  as  it  is  technically  called, 
approaches  a  copper  color,  being  alloyed  with 
a  large  admixture  of  that  metal.  There  is 
then  the  "medium"  or  "yellow"  color,  and  for  all 
practical  purposes,  this  is  most  generally  useful, 
inasmuch  as  it  is  not  so  apt  to  become  stained  by 
the  varnish  which,  in  sign  writing,  is  nearly  al- 
ways coated  over  gilt  work.  If  the  medium  color 
be  left  unvarnished  it  is  more  durable  than  either 
of  the  other  colors.  It  possesses  sufficient  depth 
to  prevent  it  from  appearing  silvery,  as  "  pure 
virgin"  does  when  left  unvarnished,  and  it  has  not 
that  coppery  hue  which  distinguishes  the  "  deep" 
gold.  Moreover  the  "  medium"  is  not  so  liable  as 
the  other  colors  to  be  acted  upon  by  the  atmos- 
phere when  used  on  outside  work. 

In  exposed  situations  out  of  doors,  pale  gold  leaf 
should  always  be  varnished  over,  or,  in  the  course 
of  a  few  months,  it  will  become  tarnished.  Deep 
g-old  will  also  tarnish  if  exposed,  if  left  unvarnish- 
ed.   Wagon  and  carriage-painters,  however,  will 


GOLD  LEAF. 


157 


seldom  be  troubled  with  tarnishing,  for  all  their 
work  it  varnished  over. 

Too  much  care  cannot  be  bestowed  upon  the 
selection  of  gold  leaf,  as  the  dearness  of  gold  offers 
a  great  inducement  for  the  employment  of  metals 
of  less  value  in  its  manufacture.  Pure  gold  being 
too  ductile  to  be  worked  between  the  gold-beater's 
skin,  a  certain  amount  of  alloy  is  always  added, 
varying  from  three  to  twelve  grains  to  the  ounce. 
Generally  there  is  about  six  grains  to  the  ounce 
or,  one-eightieth  part.  The  alloy  consists  of  silver 
or  copper,  and  sometimes  both,  aud  this  accounts 
to  some  extent  for  the  difference  in  color  of  the 
gold  leaf.  It  sometimes  happens  that  the  gold 
leaf  is  kept  exposed  to  a  damp  or  uncongenial  at- 
mosphere. In  this  case  it  will  be  found  to  adhere 
partly  to  the  paper  leaves  of  the  book,  and  it  will 
be  impossible  to  remove  it  without  tearing  it  in 
pieces,  when  it  is  almost  if  not  entirely  worthless. 
Gold  leaf  should  fall  freely  from  the  book,  on  the 
leaves  being  opened  without  any  particle  sticking 
to  the  paper.  Some  painters  place  the  book  be- 
fore the  fire  for  an  hour  or  so  previous  to  use,  in 
order  to  dry  the  gold  leaf  and  render  it  more  man- 
ageable. 

Owing  to  the  great  expense  of  gilding,  in  con- 
sequence of  the  thickness  of  the  leaf,  various  sub- 
stitutes for  gold  were  formerly  used.  The  Italians 
invented  a  method  of  overlaying  with  silver  leaf 
or  some  cheap  white  metal  those  parts  which  they 
wished  should  have  the  appearance  of  gold,  and 
then,  by  applying  a  yellow  transparent  varnish 
the  white  metal  was  made  to  assume  the  required 
color,  and  at  the  same  time  to  present  a  metallic 
splendor.    This  is  clone  at  the  present  day  by 


158 


GOLD  PAINT. 


picture-frame  and  molding*  gilders,  the  varnish 
or  lacquer  being-  made  as  follows  : 

Deep  Gold  Colored  Lacquer. — Seed  lac,  3  oz.; 
tumeric,  1  oz. ;  dragon's  blood,  J  oz ;  alcohol, 
1  pint ;  digest  for  a  week,  frequently  shaking ; 
decant  and  filter. 

Medium  Gold  Lacquer. — Put  into  a  clean  four  gal- 
lon tin,  1  pound  of  ground  tumeric,  ounces  of 
gamboge,  3^  ounces  powdered  gum  sandrac,  f 
pound  of  shellac,  and  2  gallons  of  spirits  of  wine. 
When  shaken,  dissolved,  and  strained,  add  1  pint 
of  turpentine  varnish  (q.  v.)  and  mix  all  together. 

"Double  gilding"  was  at  one  time  resorted  to 
by  some  sign  writers,  with  the  view  of  giving  the 
work  additional  brilliancy  and  permanence. 
Now,  however,  so  far  as  the  sign  writer  is  con- 
cerned, this  plan  is  never  resorted  to  (except  in 
the  case  of  gilding  on  glass,  which  is  a  totally 
different  branch  of  the  art  (See  Glass  Gilding),  the 
advantage  derivable  from  it  being  disproportion- 
ate to  the  cost  of  the  metal  and  the  extra  cost  of 
putting  it  on. 

Cold  Paint. — A  mixture  of  gold  bronze  and  some 
light,  limpid  varnish.  This  is  excellent  for  use 
where  pouncing  cannot  be  resorted  to,  to  prevent 
sticking,  as  in  putting  on  a  monogram  or  orna- 
ment to  a  finished  panel.  It  does  not  prove  so 
durable,  however,  as  gold  laid  over  size. 

Grafton  Paint- — A  coarse  earth,  called  by  various 
names,  as  fire-proof  paint,  mineral  paint,  roofing 
paint,  etc.  It  is  found  in  various  shades  of  color 
from  light  gray  to  reddish  brown,  and  is  used  ex- 
tensively in  the  preparation  of  rough-stuff  for  car- 
riage work. 


GRAINING. 


159 


Graining. — The  imitation  of  the  natural  veining,  curl, 
etc.,  of  woods,  and  is  performed  in  the  first  case 
by  laying-  an  opaque  ground  in  strong  oil  paint  of 
the  general  color  of  the  wood  to  he  imitated,  but 
lighter,  and  when  dry,  covering-  this  with  a  coat 
of  transparent  color,  of  the  proper  hue  and  full 
depth,  prepared  either  with  turpentine  or  water 
color. 

The  operations — of  which  there  are  many — are 
performed  with  common  brushes,  and  as  soon  as 
the  ground  is  dry  the  process  called  over-grain- 
ing is  commenced.  This  is  executed  by  a  varie- 
ty of  tools,  consisting-  of  broad,  flat,  and  thin 
brushes,  used  either  spread,  turning-  the  hand,  or 
edgewise — hair  pencils  of  various  sizes,  combs, 
and  rubbers,  which  as  occasion  requires  are 
drawn  over  the  paint  so  as  to  leave  the  streaky 
grains,  curls  and  knots,  according-  to  the  skill  of 
the  grainer.  Rags  are  used  to  wipe  off  some  of 
the  graining  color,  as  desired,  and  various  lines, 
eyes,  veins,  knots,  etc.,  are  touched  and  re-touch- 
ed until  the  desired  effect  is  obtained,  the  work 
being  subsequently  varnished. 

In  graining  work  that  is  paneled,  the  lights 
and  shades  of  the  panel  should  be  stronger  than 
on  the  rest  of  surface.  The  rails  and  stiles  of 
doors  should  be  more  simple  than  the  panels  in 
the  imitation  of  dark  decorated  woods,  as  rose- 
wood. If  cross  rails  are  full  of  work,  make  the 
upright  stiles  plain,  for  their  appearance  is 
changed  by  their  position  with  regard  to  light. 
Perhaps  the  greatest  triumph  in  staining  is  imi- 
tating successfully  the  curls  of  mahogany. 
Graining  in  maple  woods  is  suitable  for  dining- 
rooms  ;  the  color  of  maple  varies  very  much,  and 


160 


GRAINING  COMB. 


therefore  it  is  necessary  to  select  a  choice  piece  of 
imitation.  Pollard  oak  graining  suits  well  for  a 
dining-room  with  its  warm  color  and  rich  effect, 
the  color  varying  from  the  lightness  of  maple  to 
the  darkness  of  mahogany,  so  affording  a  range 
of  choice.  Oak  color  is  adapted  to  all  styles  of 
wainscot,  harmonizing  with  warm  colors  on  wall 
space,  whether  this  be  prepared  or  painted,  and 
making  pleasing  contrasts  with  cold  ones.  It 
also  looks  well  on  the  ceiling  cornices  of  lobbies. 
In  wainscot  graining  the  lights  and  shades  on  the 
panels  should  be  the  strongest.  If  the  prevalent 
color  of  a  room  be  warm,  the  graining  of  the 
woodwork  should  respond ;  if  crimson,  maple, 
satin  wood  or  oak  graining  may  be  employed  ;  if 
green,  some  cool  toned  and  light  colored  wood. 
Smoothness  of  surface  is  important  in  the  grained 
imitation  of  woods,  as  well  as  the  rendering  of 
deep  transparent  and  shadowy  half  tints.  The 
grainer  should  not  revel,  as  we  have  seen  some 
do,  in  knots,  which,  indeed,  should  be  left  out,  as 
well  as  the  representation  of  cross-grained  stuff, 
which  the  architects  would  avoid  in  real  wood, 
whether  for  stiles,  rails,  or  panels.  Where  wood 
has  been  previously  painted,  the  grainer  should 
examine  it  closety  to  see  that  it  is  not  liable  to 
peel  off,  and  so  spoil  his  work.  Where  marble 
has  to  be  imitated,  in  order  to  secure  a  transpar- 
ent effect  the  best  polished"  copal  should  be  used 
with  colors,  never  turpentine. 
Graining  Comb-— Tool  used  to  mark  the  grain  in 
imitating  various  woods  or  graining.  They  are 
made  of  steel,  iron,  leather,  etc.,  and  are  generally 
supplied  in  sets  of  from  six  to  eight,  varying  in 
coarseness,  the  best  being  of  American  make  of 


GRECIAN  BORDER. 


161 


polished  metal  put  up  in  tin  cases.  Those  made 
of  leather  are  sold  by  the  inch,  the  American  make 
having-  20  inches  in  a  set  at  75  cents.  French,  48 
inches  in  a  set,  $3.00.  The  steel  combs  vary  from 
1  inch  to  G  inches  in  width. 


Fig.  25.— A  Graining  Comb. 


Graphite. — Plumbago,  most  generally  known  as 
Black  Lead,  though  a  very  unfortunate  name,  as 
no  lead  enters  into  the  composition  of  the  mineral. 
It  is  of  a  grayish  black  color,  with  somewhat  of  a 
metallic  lustre,  and  is  perfectly  opaque.  It  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  pigment. 

Crass  Green. — A  color  made  by  adding  three  parts 
of  chrome  yellow  to  one  of  Prussian  blue. 

Gray. — A  color  formed  of  black  and  white,  ash  color. 
French  gray  is  simply  white  and  black  with  the 
addition  of  a  very  little  yellow  and  red. 

Grecian  Border. — A  meandering  stripe  composed 
entirely  of  horizontal  and  vertical  lines  ;  frequent- 
ly used  in  striping  sleighs  and  for  body  belts. 


162 


GREENING. 


Greening. — The  term  greening-  is  applied  to  the  color 
change  in  black,  and  the  cause  may  be  laid  to  : 
First,  the  action  of  ammonia  when  a  carriage  is 
kept  standing  where  this  volatile  gas  is  plentiful ; 
Second,  when  dark  colored  and  consequently  poor 
varnish  is  used  in  finishing ;  Third,  with  black- 
japan  surface,  when  a  coat  of  black-japan  or  var- 
nish is  put  on  before  the  under  surface  of  black- 
japan  is  thoroughly  dry.  A  carriage  kept  con- 
stantly covered,  or  in  a  dark  room  will  frequently 
be  found  with  black  portions  changed  to  a  dark 
green  color.  This  change  of  color  is  sometimes 
taken  advantage  of  by  the  painter,  and  he  is  en- 
abled thereby  to  turn  out  some  beautiful  jobs  with 
dark  green  (a  shade  which  it  would  be  impossible 
for  him  to  make  with  ordinary  pigments).  He 
simply  blacks  off  the  moldings,  or  runs  a  black 
stripe  around  a  panel,  leaving  the  greened  black 
as  the  body  color  and  the  bright  fresh  black 
throws  out  the  green  color  in  all  its  beauty. 

Green. — One  of  the  prismatic  colors,  produced  by  a 
combination  of  blue  and  yellow.rays,  is  very  com- 
mon in  the  vegetable  kingdom,  but  rare  in  the 
mineral.  There  is  only  one  metal,  copper,  which 
affords  in  its  combinations  the  various  shades  of 
green  in  general  use. 

Green  pigments  are  prepared  also  by  the  mix- 
ture of  yellow  and  blue,  and  is  most  perfect  when 
in  the  proportion  of  3  parts  yellow  to  8  of  blue,  of 
equal  intensity.  Greens  are  also  made  in  shade  or 
richness,  by  glazings  over  certain  green  grounds. 
There  are  many  varieties  of  greens,  many  of 
which  bearing  a  local  name  only  we  will  not  notice. 
The  following  list  embraces  the  principal  ones, 


GROUND. 


16S 


each  of  which  may  be  found  under  its  appropriate 
head : 


Crit. — Degree  of  hardness  or  texture,  as  hard,  soft, 
or  coarse  grit,  as  applied  to  rough-stuff  or  rubbing  - 
stone. 

Critty. — Paint  which  is  not  ground  fine  is  said  to  be 
gritty.    Any  coarse  appearance  of  paint. 

Ground. — Called  by  many  painters  "preparation." 
The  first  layer  of  color,  on  which  other  colors  are 
laid.  For  most  all  opaque  colors  a  clean  lead- 
colored  ground  is  suitable,  but  for  those  colors 
which  are  in  the  least  transparent,  a  color  similar 
to  them  must  first  be  applied  to  make  the  coating 
solid  or  free  from  streaks,  clouds,  etc. 


Arsenical  green. 
Brunswick  green. 
Chrome  green. 
Cobalt  green. 
Copper  green. 
Emerald  green. 
Frise  green. 
Gellert's  green. 
Holly  green. 
Invisible  green. 


Schweinfurth's  green. 
Varley's  green. 


Quaker  green. 
Sap  green. 


Mineral  green. 
Moulin's  green. 
Mountain  green, 
Native  green. 
Olive  green. 


Paris  green. 


164 


H 

Haerlem  Blue.— A  pigment  similar  to  Antwerp 
Blue  (which  see). 

Hairing  Off. — See  mossing"  off. 

Hamburgh  Lake.— The  same  as  Scarlet  Lake  (q.v.). 

Hard  Drying  Body  Varnish.— The  finest  quality  of 
rubbing  or  leveling  varnish  made.  It  is  fully 
equal  to  finishing  varnishes  in  paleness,  fullness, 
and  lustre,  and  is  frequently  used  for  finishing 
hurried  work.  It  works  well  enough  under  the 
brush,  and  in  48  hours  may  be  rubbed  with  pul- 
verized pumice-stone  and  water  preparatory  to  re- 
ceiving a  finishing  coat.  Although  intended  for 
carriage  bodies,  it  is  one  of  the  best  ingredients 
for  color-and-varnish  on  either  bodies  or  gears, 
and  for  use  in  some  paints  or  for  glazings,  partic- 
ularly for  white  work. 

Harmony.— The  general  accordance  of  the  objects  in 
a  picture  with  one  another,  and  their  subordin- 
ation to  the  principal  object,  so  that  all  unite  to 
constitute  a  pleasing  whole.  It  is  effected  by  a 
due  combination  of  lights  and  shades,  or  by  such 
contracts  as  are  sufficient  to  relieve  the  distant 
groups. 

Heraldry. — Heraldry  takes  its  name  from  herald, 
which  meant  in  olden  times  an  officer  in  princely 


HERALDRY. 


165 


courts,  whose  duty  was,  among*  others,  to  settle 
disputes  arising  on  the  question  of  ancestry  and 
lineage  and  the  subject  of  coats-of-arms.  The 
shield  and  the  helmet  make  up  the  essential  part 
of  a  coat  of  arms.  On  carriages  they  are  painted 
either  in  relief  or  in  their  proper  colors,  the  latter 
being  indicated  in  the  design  by  a  variation  of 
tinting  or  shading  in  conventional  lines,  of  which 
more  below.  Almost  every  coat-of-arms  is  com- 
posed of  three  distinct  parts :  first,  the  colors  ; 
second,  the  field  or  fields  on  the  shield  ;  and  third 
the  figures  on  the  same.  The  colors  are  either  of 
the  following  :  Gold  or  yellow  as  a  substitute ; 
silver  or  white  ;  red  for  the  loud  color ;  blue, 
green,  purple,  or  purple  on  white ;  and  black  for 
the  color  of  iron.  All  these  colors  have  a  sym- 
bolic meaning,  namely : 

Gold  is  nobility,  virtue,  greatness. 
Silver  for  justice,  purity,  innocence. 
Red — courage. 

Blue — fidelity,  consistency,  science. 
Green — mildness . 
Purple — royalty. 
Black — danger. 

As  stated  before,  all  colors  are  expressed  on 
black  drawings,  engravings,  and  even  on  reliefs 
on  stone,  by  customary  lines  which  are  still  the 
same  as  they  were  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
We  illustrate  this  by  the  small  cuts  on  page  167  : 
Fig.  26  represents  a  shield  filled  with  dots  which 
express  gold  ;  Fig.  27  shows  a  blank  field  indicat- 
ing silver ;  Fig.  28  is  tinted  with  vertical  lines> 
meaning  red  ;  Fig.  29  is  shaded  in  horizontal  lines 
for  blue  ;  Fig.  30  is  filled  with  diagonal  lines 


HERALDRY. 


running-  from  the  top  of  the  shield  to  the  bottom 
and  in  the  direction  from  right  to  left,  indicating- 
green.  (We  here  remark  that  in  Heraldry  the 
right  side  of  the  shield  is  that  which  is  left  when 
looking  at  it  on  the  paper,  for  the  reason  that  it  is 
imagined  that  you  are  carrying  the  shield  before 
you.)  In  Fig.  31  the  diagonal  lines  run  from  top 
to  bottom,  but  in  the  opposite  direction,  namely, 
from  left  to  right,  representing  purple.  A  black 
field  is  expressed  by  horizontal  and  vertical  lines 
crossing  each  other  at  right  angles  as  shown  on 
Fig.  32. 

A  rule  in  the  building  of  coats-of-arms  is,  that 
metals  never  be  placed  over  metals,  and  color  on 
top  of  color,  or  the  coat  is  either  not  genuine  or  at 
least  was  given  on  a  particular  and  important  oc- 
casion. Modern  heraldry  is  very  strict  in  the 
composition  of  colors,  which  during  the  middle 
ages  were  of  less  importance  and  rather  optional. 
This  is  the  reason  why  the  colors  of  the  oldest 
coat-of-arms  in  existence  cannot  be  defined  with 
absolute  certainty.  The  shield  or  field  can  be 
single  or  compound.  In  the  first  instance  it  has 
a  single  color ;  in  the  second  it  can  have  a 
variety  of  colors.  A  line  from  the  left  of  the 
shield  on  top  to  the  right  on  bottom  is  said  to 
cut  it  left ;  a  line  in  the  opposite  direction 
cuts  the  shield  right.  A  vertical  line  divides 
the  shield,  and  a  horizontal  line  splits  the 
same.  The  division  and  splitting  can  be  re- 
peated, and  will  produce  on  the  shield  what  are 
termed  spaces  or  fields,  if  filled  with  figures. 
Fig.  33  shows  a  shield  divided  in  spaces,  which 
again  have  their  separate  denominations.  ABC 
is  called  the  head  of  the  shield ;  D  E  F  the  belt,  or 


HERALDRY. 


167 


Fig.  26.— Gold.        Fig.  27.— Silver.        Fig.  28.— Red. 


Fig.  29.— Blue.  Fig.  30.— Green. 


Fig.  31.— Purple.       Fig.  32.— Black,  Fig.  33. 


168 


HERALDRY. 


centre,  or  road  ;  G  HI  the  foot ;  AD  G  the  right 
side;  BEH  the  field  of  battle;  CFI  the  left 
side  ;  E,  the  heart ;  B,  the  centre  of  head ;  H,  the 
centre  of  foot.  The  position  of  figures,  if  there 
are  more  than  two  of  them,  is  exactly  prescribed. 
If  there  are  three  figures,  they  are  to  be  placed  in 
spaces  A,  C,  H ;  four  A,  C,  G,  I;  five  in  B,  E, 
H,  D,  F.  The  figures  on  coats-of-arms  are  either 
natural  or  imaginary.  The  former  are  mostly 
animals,  plants,  stars,  the  sun  and  moon,  and  the 
elements,  water,  fire  and  earth.  Lions  and  leop- 
ards are  very  common,  and  the  position  in  which 
they  are  represented  is  again  guided  by  certain 
principles.  In  the  thirteenth,  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries,  animals  were  painted  in  a 
conventional  style,  without  regard  to  their  being 
life-like,  and  only  since  the  sixteenth  century  the 
execution  is  more  natural,  and  thus  lost  its  mark- 
ed heraldic  character.  Besides  mythical  animals 
we  also  find  on  coats-of-arms  artistic  figures  con- 
sisting of  weapons,  clothing,  common  utensils, 
buildings,  rivers,  castles,  bridges,  ships,  tools  and 
instruments. 

The  form  of  shields  has  varied  in  almost  every 
century  :  the  oldest  on  record  being  of  a  very  queer 
shape.  Married  ladies  used  to  have  two  coat-of- 
arms — that  of  their  parents  and  their  husbands. 
The  helmet  is  an  attribute  of  importance  to  coats- 
of-arms  ;  it  is  mostly  painted  in  gold,  and  is  found 
with  or  without  a  shield.  The  open  helmet  is  the 
property  of  the  nobility,  and  citizens  have  it  shut. 
Shield  bearers  on  coats-of-arms  originated  at  the 
time  of  the  tournaments,  and  mythical  animals ; 
negroes  for  bearers  are  quite  common.  The  paint- 
ing of  coats-of-arms,  crests,  monograms,  etc.,  has 


HERALDRY. 


169 


not  been  cultivated  to  a  great  extent  in  this 
country,  owing-  no  doubt  to  the  facility  offered  to 
carriage-makers  to  buy  ready-made  ornaments — 
or  transfers.  This  is  to  be  regretted,  because  this 
work  is  always  in  demand  by  private  parties,  in- 
dependent of  the  superior  transfer  ornaments  to 
be  had  in  the  trade.  The  colors  used  for  heraldic 
painting  are  those  put  up  in  collapsible  tubes,  of 
which  there  are  about  ninety  different  kinds. 
Winsor  &  Newton's  being  considered  by  many  art- 
ists to  be  the  best,  but  it  will  be  found  that  Amer- 
ican colors  are  equally  in  demand. 

The  following  list  of  finely-prepared  oil  colors 
for  artists  will  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the 
large  number  of  fine  colors  that  are  supplied  in 
tubes.  Although  few  painters  may  ever  be  called 
upon  to  use  all  of  the  colors  on  the  list,  still  it 
should  be  a  satisfaction  to  know  them  by  name : 


American  vermilion. 

Cadmium,  light. 

Antimony  yellow. 

"  deep. 

Antwerp  blue. 

1 '  orange 

Aspbaltum. 

"  yellow. 

Bistre. 

Caledonian  brown. 

Bitumen. 

Cappah  brown. 

Blue  black. 

Carmine  lake. 

Blue  verditer. 

Cassel  earth. 

Bone  brown. 

Capucine  madder. 

Brilliant  yellow. 

Cerulean  blue. 

Brown  madder. 

Chinese  blue. 

Brown  ochre. 

Chinese  green. 

Brown  pink. 

Chinese  vermilion. 

Burnt  carmine. 

China  white. 

Burnt  lake. 

Chrome  green,  No.  1,  light. 

Burnt  Roman  ochre. 

"  2,  med. 

Burnt  sienna. 

"3,  deep. 

Burnt  terra  verte. 

Chrome  orange. 

Burnt  umber. 

Chrome  red. 

Cadmium,  lemon. 

Chrome  yellow.  No.  1,  light. 

HERALDRY. 


Chrome  yellow,  No.  2,  mi 
"    3,  de 

Citron  yellow. 
Cobalt  blue. 
Cobalt  green. 
Cologne  earth. 
Copal  megilp. 
Cork  black. 
Cremnitz  white. 
Crimson  lake. 
English  vermilion. 
Emerald  green. 
Emeraude  green. 
Extract  of  gamboge. 
Extract  of  vermilion. 
Flake  white. 
Flesh  ochre. 
French  carmine. 
French  green. 
French  Naples  yellow. 
French  vermilion. 
Gamboge. 
Gaude  lake. 
Green  lake. 
Gold  ochre. 
Imperial  orange. 
Indian  lake. 
Indian  red. 
Indian  yellow. 
Indigo. 
Italian  pink. 
Ivory  black. 
King's  yellow. 
Lamp  black. 
Lemon  yellow. 
Light  red. 
Light  red  sienna. 
Madder  carmine. 
Madder  lake. 
Madder  lake,  deep. 
Malachite  green. 


I.  Mars  brown. 
>.    Mars  orange. 

Mars  red. 

Mars  violet. 

Mars  yellow. 

Mauve  lake. 

Megilp. 

Mummy. 

Naples  yellow,  No.  1,  light. 

"  2,  med. 
"   3,  deep. 

Neutral  tint. 
New  blue. 
Olive  lake. 
Olive  tint. 
Orpiment. 
Oxford  ochre. 
Orange  vermilion. 
Oxide  of  chromium. 
Paris  blue. 
Paris  green. 
Paul  Veronese  green. 
Payne's  gray. 
Perfect  yellow. 
Permanent  blue. 
Permanent  white. 
Permanent  green. 
Persian  red. 
Pink  madder. 
Prussian  blue. 
Prussian  brown. 
Prussian  green. 
Purple  lake 
Purple  madder. 
Raw  sienna. 
Raw  umber. 
Reuben's  madder. 
Robert's  lake. 
Robert's  lake,  No.  1. 

"  2. 
"         "  3. 


HERALDRY. 


171 


Robert's  lake,  No.  4. 


Roman  ochre. 
Rose  lake. 
Rose  madder. 
Rose  pink. 
Scarlet  lake. 
Scarlet  madder. 
Scarlet  vermilion. 
Sepia. 

Silver  white. 
Sugar  of  lead. 
Terra  rosa. 
Terra  verte. 


«  •  tt  Q 

tt  tt 
"         "  8. 


Transparent  gold  ochre. 

Transparent  oxide  of  chromi- 

Uitramarine.  [um. 

Ultramarine  ash. 

Vandyke  brown. 

Venetian  red. 

Verdigris. 

Verona  brown. 

Veronese  green. 

Violet  carmine. 

Yellow  lake. 

Yellow  madder. 

Yellow  ochre. 

Zinc  white. 

Zinnober  green,  light. 


medium, 
deep. 


These  colors  cost  from  $1.50  to  $12.00  per  dozen 
tubes. 

In  addition  to  these  procure  small  bottles  of 
copal  or  mastic  varnish,  turpentine  and  japan  gold- 
size  (q.  v.)  a  square  or  oval  palette,  a  palette-knife 
and  a  few  red-sable  pencils,  from  the  finest  to 
those  the  size  of  a  goose-quill. 

For  working-,  the  colors  should  be  arranged  on 
the  palette  in  the  following  order :  White  in  the 
centre,  the  colors  which  cover  to  the  right,  and 
transparent  ones  to  the  left.  In  this  way  you 
avoid  the  useless  mixing  up  of  the  latter  kinds. 
Use  a  mahl-stick  to  rest  the  hand  upon,  and  it  is  a 
good  plan  to  have  a  wet  shammy  laid  over  the 
spot  touched  by  the  end  of  the  stick. 

The  design  is  first  drawn  on  paper  and  its  out- 
line pricked  full  of  holes  with  a  fine  needle.  The 
paper  is  then  laid  on  the  panel  and  tipped  with  a 
small  bag  made  of  flannel  or  muslin  and  filled  with 
pulverized  chalk  or  whiting.    After  removing  line 


172 


HOLIDAY. 


the  contours  with  thin  color.  The  parts  to  be 
gilded  are  then  sized,  and  when  dry  so  as  to  be 
"tacky"  the  gold-leaf  is  put  on.  (See  Gilding.) 
Imitation  of  gold  is  made  by  mixing-  Cremnitz 
white,  cadmium  yellow,  burnt  sienna,  and  raw 
umber.  Genuine  silver-leaf  is  seldom  if  ever  used, 
as  it  soons  turns  black,  and  the  imitation— pure 
white— is  preferred.  Gold  is  shaded  with  burnt 
sienna,  or  asphaltum.  The  red  plush  often  seen 
on  coat-of-arms  is  made  with  crimson  lake  and 
vermilion,  shaded  with  brown  ochre  and  light- 
ened with  vermilion.  The  light  should  in  all 
cases  be  laid  on  bold  and  bodily ;  the  shades,  on 
the  contrary,  as  smooth  as  possible. 

Holiday. — A  term  applied  to  a  missed  spot  in  paint- 
ing or  varnishing — a  part  not  painted. 

Holly  Creen. — An  ochre,  same  as  Terre-verte  (q.  v.). 

Hooker's  Creen.— A  water  color  paint. 

House  Painting. — There  are  many  methods  em- 
ployed by  house-painters  in  arriving  at  the  same 
result,  namely  :  a  finished  job  ;  and  it  may  be 
thought  by  some  that  the  directions  we  give  for 
painting  a  house  are  not  correct,  but  to  these  we 
simply  point  to  the  preface  of  our  book,  and  go  on 
with  explanations  or  description  of  the  process 
generally  followed  from  the  commencement  to  the 
conclusion. 

Before  beginning  to  paint  neiv  work,  all  projec- 
tions, such  as  lumps  of  glue,  etc.,  must  be  cleared 
away  with  the  putty-knife  and  duster.  Then  all 
knots  in  the  wood  must  be  killed  with  knotting 
(q.  v.)  to  prevent  the  pitch  or  turpentine  in  the 
knots  from  oozing  out  and  spoiling  the  appearance 
of  the  painting  when  finished.    After  the  knotting 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


173 


is  dry  and  hard,  which  it  does  quickly,  the  prim- 
ing, or  first  coat  is  put  on.  This  is  made  of  white 
lead  thinned  with  oil  and  having-  a  little  drier 
(q.  v.)  to  harden  it.  Sometimes  new  wood  has  a 
coat  of  clear-cole  (q.  v.)  applied  to  it,  but  this  is 
better  on  old  and  dirty  wood  which  has  never 
been  painted  than  on  new  smooth  work. 

As  soon  as  the  priming-  is  dry,  all  nail-holes, 
cracks,  etc.,  must  be  stopped  with  putty.  It  is 
useless  to  do  this  before  the  priming  has  been  ap- 
plied, because  putty  will  not  adhere  to  wood  unless 
painted* 

After  this  has  been  done  the  second  coat  may 
be  applied,  and  for  new  work  this  should  be  made 
up  chiefly  of  oil,  because  oil  is  most  efficient  in 
stopping  the  action  of  the  wood ;  then  the  third, 
and  even  a  fourth  coat  my  be  applied.  In  laying 
on  the  color,  the  brush  should  be  passed  back- 
wards and  forwards  and  in  every  direction,  to 
spread  the  color  evenly  and  work  it  well  into  the 
wood,  in  the  earlier  coats.  Finally,  the  brush 
should  be  drawn  up  and  down,  or  backwards  and 
forwards,  as  the  case  may  be,  in  the  direction  of 
the  grain  of  the  wood,  taking  care  to  leave  no 
marks  of  the  hairs  of  the  brush.  In  painting  a 
door,  or  any  nice  piece  of  work  in  which  part  is 
sunk  and  part  raised,  the  moldings  or  bead-work 
should  be  painted  first  with  a  sash  tool,  and  then 
the  panels,  styles,  and  rails  with  a  brush.  No 
coat  should  be  laid  on  a  previous  coat  until  that 
coat  shall  be  perfectly  dry  and  hard  ;  and  before 
beginning  to  paint  any  piece  of  work,  whatever 
may  be  the  number  of  the  coat,  every  particle  of 
dust  that  may  have  settled  on  it  should  be  care- 
fully removed  with  the  dusting  brush. 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


Such  is  the  method  of  painting  new  work.  In 
painting-  old  work  the  process  is  somewhat  differ- 
ent. All  surfaces  should  be  looked  over  and 
cleaned  from  grease,  and  it  is  a  good  plan  to  wash 
the  worst  or  greasy  spots  over  with  turpentine. 
The  first  coat  after  priming  in  new  work  should 
he  paint  in  which  oil  predominates ;  but  for  old 
work  more  turpentine  is  best. 
To  Remove  Old  Paint  from  Woodwork. — (1) 
Make  a  very  strong  solution  of  common  washing 
soda,  and  appry  it  until  the  paint  can  be  easily 
scraped  away.  (2)  Apply  naptha  until  the  paint 
is  softened,  and  can  be  scraped  off  with  a  knife.  (3) 
Slake  3  pounds  stone  lime  in  water,  and  add  1  pound 
pearlash,  and  sufficient  water  to  make  it  into  a 
thick  mush-like  consistency,  apply  it  with  a  brush 
and  leave  it  on  the  paint  from  eighteen  to  twenty- 
four  hours,  when  the  paint  may  be  easily  scraped 
off.  (4)  Burn  off  by  use  of  lamps,  furnace,  torch, 
gas,  etc. 

A  greater  number  of  coats  are  required  on  plas- 
ter than  on  wood,  because  plaster  will  absorb 
more  oil  than  wood  will.  Thus  if  three  coats  are 
sufficient  for  wood,  four  and  sometimes  five  will 
be  wanted  for  plaster. 

In  painting  plaster,  the  first  coat  should  consist 
of  white  lead  well  thinned  with  oil,  and  plenty 
of  liquid  drier,  or  litharge  to  ensure  drying 
quickly.  The  plaster  will  be  saturated  with  oil  to 
some  depth  and  the  second  and  third  coats  may 
have  a  goodly  share  of  turpentine,  and  some  of 
the  color  with  which  the  walls  are  to  be  tinted 
when  finished.  The  fourth  coat  should  consist  of 
a  darker  shade  of  color  than  that  to  be  used  for 
the  finishing  coat,  mixed  with  equal  quantities  of 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


175 


oil  and  turpentine.  The  last  coat  should  be  mixed 
with  spirits  of  turpentine  only,  and  a  little  gold- 
size  to  harden  it.  This  coat,  which  is  called  the 
"flatting"  (q.  v.)  should  be  somewhat  lighter 
than  the  selected  tint,  because  it  will  dry  darker. 
In  painting  plaster,  every  coat  should  be  allowed 
to  dry  thoroughly  and  remain  for  four  or  five 
days  before  the  next  is  put  on  ;  the  last  coat  but 
one,  however,  should  not  be  allowed  to  stand 
more  than  two  days  before  the  finishing  coat  is 
laid  over  it. 

The  compositions  of  priming  for  new  work,  have 
been  described  ;  the  proportions  of  the  ingredients 
used  for  second  and  following  coats  for  old  and 
new  work,  and  the  meaning  of  certain  expressions 
used  in  painting  to  imply  combinations  of  a  certain 
number  of  coats,  will  now  be  laid  down  as  fol- 
lows : 

(1)  Second  Coat  for  New  Work,  or  oil  second 
color. — White  lead  thinned  with  oil  and  a  little 
turpentine,  with  some  driers.  In  winter  more 
driers  must  be  used  than  in  summer. 

(2)  Second  Coat  for  Old  Work,  or  turpentine 
second  color. — White  lead  thinned  with  about 
three  parts  of  turpentine  to  one  of  oil,  with  a  little 
driers.  When  much  turpentine  is  used  less  driers 
are  required. 

(3)  Turpentine  Color. — Color  thinned  almost  en- 
tirely with  turpentine,  and  used  only  when  the 
work  is  to  be  finished  in  oil,  so  that  the  last  coat 
may  have  a  better  gloss. 

(4)  Third,  or  Ground  Color. — Color  thinned  with 
two  parts  oil  and  one  part  turpentine,  and  tinted 
in  shade  darker  than  the  finishing  color. 


176 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


(5)  Finishing  Oil  Color. — Thin  with  a  little  more 
oil  than  turpentine,  and  tint  to  desired  color. 

(6)  Flatting,  or  finishing'  turpentine  color,  is 
thinned  with  turpentine  and  has  no  Shine. 

(7)  Bastard  Flat  is  thinned  with  turpentine  and  a 
little  oil,  which  renders  it  more  durable  than  per- 
fect flatting-.  To  procure  a  good  flat,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  have  a  perfectly  even  glossy  ground,  and 
it  should  be  of  the  same  tint ;  but  a  little  darker 
than  the  finishing  tint. 

The  terms  for  certain  combinations  of  coats  in 
painting,  and  the  various  kinds  of  coats  that  each 
term  implies,  are  as  follows  : 

(1)  Clear-cole  and  Finish. — Stop  defects  with 
putty,  clear-cole,  and  finish  with  oil  finishing 
color  as  directed. 

(2)  Two  Coats  in  Oil.— Turpentine  second  color, 
and  finishing  oil  color. 

(3)  Two  Coats  in  Oil  and  Flat.  —  Turpentine 
second  color,  third  color,  and  flat. 

(4)  Three  Coats  in  Oil. — Turpentine  second  color, 
turpentine  color,  and  finishing  oil  color. 

(5)  Three  Coats  in  Oil  and  Flat. — Turpentine 
second  turpentine  color,  third  or  ground  color, 
and  flatting. 

(6)  Four  Coats  in  Oil  (New  work). — Oil  priming, 
oil  second  color,  turpentine  color  and  oil  finishing 
color. 

(7)  Four  Coats  in  Oil  and  Flat  (New  work).— 
Oil  priming,  oil  second  color,  turpentine  color, 
third  or  ground  color  and  flatting. 

Suggestions  in  Regard  to  Desirable  Shades  and 
Trimmings. — For  dwellings  in  elevated  or  exposed 
situations — grays,  drabs,  olives  and  other  dark 
colors  are  most  desirable.    For  dwellings  not  so 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


situated  or  which  are  surrounded  by  shade  trees, 
the  yellow  and  lighter  tints  are  preferable. 

When  the  molding",  cornice  or  other  ornamental 
work  is  heavy,  i.  e.,  presents  a  large  surface,  the 
lighter  trimming  shades  should  be  used,  and 
where  the  ornamental  work  is  light  and  graceful 
in  design,  the  darker  trimming  shades  are  more 
effective. 

When  any  shade  of  green  is  used  on  blinds,  use 
any  of  the  red  shades  for  sashes,  beading,  etc. 

When  two  colors  are  used  on  large  plain  sur- 
faces, a  dividing  line  of  some  darker  color,  or 
black,  should  be  drawn  between  them. 

For  cottages,  villas,  sea-side  and  summer 
hotels,  etc.,  very  rich  effects  are  produced  by 
using  a  different  body  color  on  two  or  three 
stories. 

It  is  a  well  known  fact  that  the  average  cost  of 
applying  paint  is  from  two  to  four  times  as  much 
as  the  cost  of  the  paint  itself,  but  probably  not 
more  than  one  in  a  hundred  purchasers  stop  to 
think  of  the  questionable  economy  of  expending 
from  fifty  to  one  hundred  dollars  for  labor,  in  ap- 
plying twenty- five  or  thirty  dollars'  worth  of  infer- 
ior paint,  which,  after  a  year  or  so,  affords  neither 
protection  nor  ornament,  when  the  use  of  a  strict- 
ly first-class  paint  (costing  twenty  per  cent,  or 
say  five  or  six  dollars  more  for  sufficient  to  paint 
a  small  house),  would  insure  a  serviceable  and  al- 
ways pleasing  result  for  at  least  two  or  three 
times  as  long. 

Another  important  fact — which  no  intelligent, 
honest  painter  will  deny — should  also  be  more 
generally  known,  viz.:  that  a  gallon  of  paint  com- 
posed of  the  best  materials,  thoroughly  combined 


178 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


will,  in  consequence  of  its  superior  "body"  and 
capacity,  "  cover"  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  per 
cent  more  surface  than  a  gallon  of  such  paints  as 
are  commonly  sold. 

Regarded  from  an  art  point  of  view,  there  are 
but  three  colors,  namely :  blue,  red  and  yellow. 

Blue,  reel  and  yellow  have  been  termed  primary 
colors ;  they  cannot  be  formed  by  the  admixture 
of  any  other  colors.  All  colors  other  than  blue, 
red  and  yellow  result  from  the  admixture  of  the 
primary  colors. 

By  the  admixture  of  blue  and  red,  purple  is 
formed ;  by  the  admixture  of  red  and  yellow, 
orange  is  formed  ;  and  by  the  admixture  of  yellow 
and  blue,  green  is  formed. 

Colors  resulting  from  the  admixture  of  two 
primary  colors  are  termed  secondary;  hence 
purple,  orange  and  green  are  secondary  colors. 

By  the  admixture  of  two  second  ary  colors  a 
tertiary  color  is  formed ;  thus,  purple  and  orange 
produce  russet  (the  red  tertiary) ;  orange  and 
green  produce  citrine  (the  yellow  tertiary) ;  and 
green  and  purple,  olive  (the  blue  tertiary)  ;  rus- 
set, citrine  and  olive  are  the  three  tertiary  colors. 

When  a  light  color  is  juxtaposed  to  a  dark 
color,  the  light  color  appears  lighter  than  it  is  and 
the  dark  color  darker. 

When  colors  are  juxtaposed,  they  become  influ- 
enced as  to  their  hue.  Thus,  when  red  and  green 
are  placed  side  by  side,  the  red  appears  redder 
than  it  actually  is,  and  the  green  greener ;  and 
when  blue  and  black  are  juxtaposed,  the  blue 
manifests  but  little  alteration,  while  the  black  as- 
sumes an  orange  tint  or  becomes  "rusty." 

No  one  color  can  be  viewed  by  the  eye  without 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 


179 


another  being*  created.  Thus,  if  red  be  viewed, 
the  eye  creates  for  itself  green,  and  this  green  is 
cast  upon  whatever  is  near.  If  it  views  green, 
red  is  in  like  manner  created  and  cast  upon  adja- 
cent objects  ;  thus,  if  red  and  green  are  juxtapos- 
ed, each  creates  the  other  in  the  eye,  and  the  red 
created  by  the  green  is  cast  upon  the  red,  and  the 
green  created  by  the  red  cast  upon  the  green  ; 
and  the  red  and  the  green  become  improved  by 
being  juxtaposed.  The  eye  also  demands  the 
presence  of  the  three  primary  colors,  either  in 
their  purity  or  in  combination ;  and  if  these  are 
not  present,  whatever  is  deficient  will  be  created 
in  the  eye,  and  this  induced  color  will  be  cast  upon 
whatever  is  near.  Thus,  when  we  view  blue, 
orange,  which  is  a  mixture  of  red  and  yellow,  is 
created  in  the  eye,  and  this  color  is  cast  upon 
whatever  is  near ;  if  black  is  in  juxtaposition  with 
the  blue,  this  orange  is  cast  upon  it,  and  gives  to 
it  an  orange  tint,  thus  causing  it  to  look  "rusty." 

In  like  manner,  if  we  look  upon  red,  green  is 
formed  in  the  eye,  and  is  cast  upon  adjacent  colors  ; 
or  if  we  look  upon  yellow,  purple  is  formed. 

Harmony  results  from  an  agreeable  contrast. 

Colors  which  perfectly  harmonize  improve  one 
another  to  the  utmost. 

In  order  to  perfect  harmony,  the  three  colors 
are  necessary,  either  in  their  purity  or  in  combi- 
nation. 

Red  and  green  combine  to  yield  a  harmony. 
Red  is  a  primary  color,  and  green,  which  is  a 
secondary  color,  consists  of  blue  and  yellow — the 
other  two  primary  colors.  Blue  and  orange  also 
produce  a  harmony,  and  yellow  and  purple,  for  in 
each  case  the  three  primary  colors  are  present. 


HOUSE  PAINTING. 

It  has  been  found  that  the  primary  colors  in 
perfect  purity  produce  exact  harmonies  in  the 
proportions  of  8  parts  of  blue,  5  of  red,  and  3  of 
yellow  ;  that  the  secondary  colors  harmonize  in 
the  proportions  of  13  of  purple,  11  of  green,  and  8 
of  orange  ;  and  that  the  tertiary  colors  harmonize 
in  the  proportions  of  olive  24,  russet  21,  and 
citrine  19. 

There  are,  however,  subtleties  of  harmony 
which  it  is  difficult  to  understand. 

The  rarest  harmonies  frequently  lie  close  on  the 
verge  of  discord. 

Harmony  of  color  is,  in  many  respects,  analo- 
gous to  harmony  of  musical  sonuds. 

Blue  is  a  cold  color  and  appears  to  recede  from 
the  eye. 

Red  is  a  warm  color,  and  is  exciting;  it  remains 
stationary  as  to  distance. 

Yellow  is  the  color  most  nearly  allied  to  light ; 
it  appears  to  advance  toward  the  spectator. 

At  twilight  blue  appears  much  lighter  than  it 
is,  red  much  darker,  and  yellow  slightly  darker. 
By  ordinary  gas-light  blue  becomes  darker,  red 
brighter,  and  yellow  lighter.  By  this  artificial 
light  a  pure  yellow  appears  lighter  than  white  it- 
self when  viewed  in  contrast  with  certain  other 
colors. 

By  certain  combinations,  color  may  make  glad 
or  depress,  convey  the  idea  of  purit}^  richness  or 
poverty,  or  may  affect  the  mind  in  any  desired 
manner,  as  does  music. 

When  color  is  placed  on  a  gold  ground,  it  should 
be  outlined  with  a  darker  shade  of  its  own  color. 

When  a  gold  ornament  falls  on  a  colored  ground, 
it  should  be  outlined  with  black. 


HUNGARY  GREEN. 


181 


When  an  ornament  falls  on  a  ground  which  is 
in  direct  harmony  with  it,  it  must  be  outlined  with 
a  lighter  tint  of  its  own  color.  Thus,  when  a  red 
ornament  falls  on  a  green  ground,  the  ornament 
must  be  outlined  with  a  lighter  red. 

When  the  ornament  and  the  ground  are  in  two 
tints  of  the  same  color,  if  the  ornament  is  darker 
than  the  ground,  it  will  require  outlining  with  a 
still  darker  tint  of  the  same  color ;  but  if  lighter 
than  the  ground  no  outline  will  be  required. 

Hue.— The  terms  "tint,"  shade,"  "  hue"  and  "  color," 
are  very  often  used  incorrectly  even  by  persons 
who  ought  to  know  better.  The  first  three  are 
confounded  one  with  the  other,  or  used  indiscrim- 
inately, even  by  painters  and  others  who  are  in 
the  habit  of  handling  paints  and  colors.  Every 
compound  of  the  three  primary  colors  is  a  hue. 
For  example  green  being  a  mixture  of  blue  and 
yellow  may  vary  in  hue  from  the  yellowist  to  the 
bluest ;  orange,  being  a  mixture  of  yellow  and 
red  may  vary  in  hue  from  the  yellowist  to  the 
reddest. 

A  great  number  of  hues  may  be  made  by  a 
combination  of  the  three  primaries,  the  name  of 
the  hue  being  the  same  as  that  of  the  predominat- 
ing primary.  A  color  mixed  with  white  forms  a 
tint,  and  one  in  which  black  is  introduced  gives 
us  a  shade. 

Hungary  Blue. — A  name  often  given  to  Cobalt 
Blue. 

Hungary  Green. — A  carbonate  of  copper,  found  in 
a  natural  state  in  the  mountains  of  Saxony  and 
Hungary,  mixed  with  earthy  matters. 


182 


HUNTING  HORN. 


Hunting  Horn.  {Her.)—  A  horn  used  to  cheer  the 
hounds  in  pursuit  of  game.  It  is  a  frequent 
bearing"  in  Heraldry.  When  adorned  with  rings 
it  is  said  to  he  garnished. 

Hurst.  (Her.) — A  charge  representing  a  small 
group  of  trees  borne  upon  a  mount  or  base. 


183 


I 

Icicling. — A  term  applied  to  the  appearance  of  little 
tears  or  icicles  on  a  varnished  surface,  caused  by 
the  varnish  sagging*  down  in  small  streaks  from 
any  little  nibs  or  specks  of  dust,  also,  if  varnish 
be  rubbed  before  perfectly  hard,  the  nibs  or  lumps 
will  sweat  out,  and  when  varnish  is  put  on  these, 
it  will  cause  every  one  of  these  nibs  to  form  drops 
or  icicles.  To  avoid  this,  the  job  must  be  rubbed 
immediately  before  applying  the  varnish  with 
pumice  rag  and  then  washing  clean. 

Imbrued.  {Her.) — Signifies  bloody,  or  dropping 
with  blood.  Weapons  thus  blazoned  are  drawn 
with  drops  of  blood  falling  from  them. 

Indian  Ink- — A  composition  of  lamp-black  and  glue 
or  size.  The  Chinese  use  vegetable  juices  which 
renders  it  more  brilliant  and  lasting.  It  is  used 
for  designs  in  black  and  white. 

Indian  Red- — A  very  rich  iron  ore,  hematite,  or 
peroxide  of  iron.  It  is  an  anomalous  red,  of  a 
purple-russet  hue,  of  good  body,  and  valued  when 
fine  for  its  pureness  and  laky  tone  of  its  tints.  In 
a  crude  state  it  is  a  coarse  powder,  full  of  extreme- 
ly hard  and  brittle  particles  of  a  dark  appearance, 
sometimes  magnetic,  and  is  greatly  improved  by 
grinding  and  washing  over.  Its  chemical  tenden- 
cy is  to  deepen,  nevertheless  it  is  very  perma- 


184 


INDIAN  YELLOW. 


nent;  neither  light,  impure  air,  mixture  with  other 
pigments,  time,  nor  fire,  effecting-  in  general  any 
sensible  change  in  it.  This  pigment  varies  con- 
siderably in  its  hues ;  that  which  is  most  rosy 
being  esteemed  the  best,  and  affording  the  purest 
tints.  Inferior  red  ochres  have  been  formerly 
substituted  for  it,  and  have  given  it  a  variable 
character,  but  can  now  be  abundantly  obtained 
pure  from  respectable  color-men. 
Persian-Red  is  another  name  for  this  pigment. 

Indian  Yellow. — A  coloring  matter  highly  esteemed 
by  painters.  It  is  imported  from  India  in  the 
form  of  balls,  each  weighing  three  or  four  ounces. 
These  are  of  a  dark  brown  color  externally,  but  of 
a  bright  yellow  in  the  interior.  It  is  of  a  fetid  odor 
and  supposed  to  be  a  urinary  sediment  of  the  camel 
or  buffalo  after  the  animal  has  fed  on  decayed  and 
yellow  mango  leaves.  It  is  used  more  extensively 
in  water-color  painting. 

Indigo. — An  extract  from  the  plant  indigofera, 
found  in  America,  Egypt,  and  the  East  Indies. 
The  purest  only  is  used  for  oil  painting,  that  of  an 
inferior  quality  may  be  used  in  distemper  painting. 
— A  preparation  from  the  leaves  of  the  anillo  is 
sometimes  fraudulently  substituted  for  indigo,  but 
may  be  at  once  detected  by  throwing  a  piece  into 
the  fire,  as  genuine  indigo  will  not  burn. 

Indorsed.  {Her.) — Applied  to  two  animals  placed 
back  to  back.  Two  keys,  two  wings,  etc.,  may 
also  be  indorsed,  and  a  pelican  is  always  drawn 
with  its  wings  endorsed. 

Infamed  or  Defamed.  {Her.)— An  epithet  applied 
to  a  lion  or  other  animal  which  has  lost  its  tail, 
the  loss  being  supposed  to  disgrace  it. 


IODINE  SCARLET. 


185 


Ingress. — A  name  given  to  a  grade  or  quality  of 
paper  used  for  sketching  upon,  and  having  its 
surface  roughened  in  such  a  manner  by  machinery, 
that  the  marks  made  by  a  pencil  or  crayon  appear 
to  be  small  dots. 

Initial. — The  first  letter  of  a  word,  frequently  placed 
on  the  door  panels  of  a  coach  instead  of  a  mono- 
gram or  heraldic  design. 

Inherent  Colors. — All  material  colors,  more  pro- 
perly called  pigments  and  dies  ;  Transient  colors 
are  the  colors  of  light  and  the  eye,  such  as  the 
rainbow,  etc. 

Inside  Coach  Finishing  Varnish.— The  name 
given  to  a  varnish  intended  for  finishing  car  inter- 
iors, and  where  great  dispatch  is  necessary  one 
coat  over  a  surface  made  by  Inside  Rubbing  Var- 
nish will  answer  well ;  but  it  is  recommended  in 
ordinary  cases  to  flow  on  two  coats  in  the  following 
manner  :  When  the  first  coat  is  dry,  do  not  rub  it, 
but  simply  wash  it  well  and  shammy  it  dry,  then 
flow  on  the  second  coat,  before  the  surface  has 
time  to  sweat.  A  car  finished  with  this  varnish 
will  only  require  a  single  coat  of  the  same  annually 
to  preserve  it  for  years. 

If  desired  to  leave  the  work  with  an  egg-shell 
gloss,  the  lustre  may  be  taken  off  with  pulverized 
pumice-stone,  and  a  finish  given  by  rubbing  slight- 
ly with  rotten-stone  and  water. 

Iodine  Scarlet. — A  new  pigment,  far  exceeding  the 
brilliancy  of  vermilion,  it  is  the  Iodide  of  Mer- 
cury. It  has  strong  body,  but  if  mixed  with  a 
metal  palette-knife  it  is  apt  to  change  the  color, 
ivory  or  bone  knives  must  be  used.    With  all  its 


186 


ISOCHROMATIC. 


beauty  it  is  fugitive  and  therefore  is  not  exten- 
sively used. 

Isochromatic. — Having*  the  same  color. 

Isinglass. — A  kind  of  gelatine  prepared  from  the 
air  bladder  of  sturgeons,  used  in  making  sizing 
for  gilding  on  glass  (which  see). 

Italian  Pink. — A  pigment  made  by  impregnating 
whiting  with  vegetable  yellow  tinctures  in  the 
same  manner  as  Dutch  pink. 

Iron  Brown. — A  pigment  belonging  to  a  class  in 
which  are  brown  ochre,  Prussian  brown,  etc. 

Ivory  Brown. — See  bone  brown. 

Ivory- Black. — The  charcoal  of  ivory.  Ivory  chip- 
pings  from  the  ivory-workers  is  placed  in  a  close- 
ly covered  crucible  and  heated  to  a  red  heat,  then 
when  cooled,  the  contents  are  ground  in  water. 
Ivory-black  is  extremely  hard  to  grind  fine  in  or- 
dinary mills,  but  color-makers  prepare  it  for 
use  ground  to  the  last  degree  of  fineness,  and  it  is 
now  considered  more  economical  to  purchase  and 
use  the  ready  prepared  black. 


187 


j 


Jack. — A  name  applied  to  various  machines  for  hold- 
ing bodies  in  the  proper  position  while  being-  paint- 
ed or  varnished ;  also,  a  contrivance  for  raising 


Fig.  34.— Jack  for  Carriage  Bodies. 

and  lowering  the  wheels  of  a  vehicle  to  enable  the 
same  to  be  turned  as  desired  while  washing,  paint- 
ing, etc.   (See  Body  Jack.) 

Japan. — A  drier  for  paints,  generally  made  by  dis- 
solving shellac  gums  in  boiling  linseed  oil.  (See 
Brown  Japan,  Black  Japan,  and  Crown  Coach 
Japan.) 

Japan  Cold-Size. — A  drier  for  paints,  made  in  a 
different  manner  from  ordinary  japan,  and  posses- 


188 


JAPAN  BROWN. 


sing*  double  the  power  of  the  latter ;  being  of  a 
light  color  it  is  well  adapted  for  use  in  all  li&nt 
colors. 

Japan  Brown-— A  beautiful  shade  of  brown  made 
by  mixing"  to  black  japan  any  red  pigment,  vermil- 
ion, Indian  red,  etc.  The  paint  when  mixed  is 
similar  in  appearance  and  consistency  to  color-and- 
varnish,  and  should  be  applied  in  a  similar  man- 
ner; i.  e.,  with  varnish  brushes.    It  is  excellent 


Fig.  35. — Automatic  Jack,  or  Body  and  Wheel  Rest. 

for  re-painting  a  carriage ;  in  which  case  rub  down 
the  old  varnish  to  remove  the  gloss,  and  apply  the 
japan  brown  directly  to  the  work,  two  coats  will 
generally  make  a  good  job,  and  by  its  use,  no  fear 
of  cracking  need  be  entertained,  for  the  coatings 
will  be  elastic  and  quite  unlike  dead  color. 

Jet-Black. — The  very  deepest  black ;  the  color  of  the 
mineral,  jet. 

Jonquil  Yellow. — A  color  used  mostly  by  fresco- 
painters,  and  is  made  by  mixing  flake  white  and 
chrome  yellow,  to  which  is  added  a  very  little  ver- 
milion or  carmine. 


Y 


189 


K 

Kalsomine. — A  mixture  of  size  and  pigment,  used 
as  a  coating*  for  walls  and  ceilings.  To  make  it, 
take  zinc  white  or  Paris  white  (the  former  is  best) 
6  pounds,  light  colored  glue  \  pound.  Soak  the 
glue  in  a  vessel  containing  about  three  pints  of 
warm  water  until  it  is  jellied  ;  then  add  a  pint  of 
water  and  heat  the  whole  until  it  becomes  fully 
dissolved  and  quite  thin.  Put  the  Paris  white 
into  a  large  pail,  pour  on  hot  water  and  stir  it 
until  the  liquid  appears  like  thick  milk.  Now 
mingle  the  glue  liquid  with  the  white,  stir  it 
thoroughly,  and  stand  the  pail  in  a  cool  place. 
When  it  has  become  semi-jellied,  that  is,  neither  a 
limpid  liquid  nor  a  strong  mass  of  jelly  it  is  in 
proper  condition  to  apply,  and  this  peculiar  state 
will  be  readily  discovered  by  a  little  experience, 
for  when  as  it  should  be,  it  will  spread  easily  with 
the  brush  without  spattering  and  it  can  be 
worked  over  the  wall  smoothly  and  without  leav- 
ing brush-marks.  The  regular  kalsomine  brush 
is  best  for  use,  notwithstanding  the  advice  given 
in  some  publications  to  use  a  common  white-wash 
brush,  good  work  cannot  be  done  with  them. 
The  brush  must  be  moved  over  the  work  in  short 
strokes  in  every  directions,  not  as  in  painting  or 
whitewashing  in  straight  lines,  and  care  must 
be  taken  to  apply  the  kalsomine  in  squares  not 


190 


KEG  LEAD. 


too  large,  and  each  one  to  blend  into  the  other 
without  time  for  the  edges  to  dry  and  show  the 
lap  or  connections.  This  forms  a  white  kalso- 
mine, which  may  be  improved  by  the  addition  of 
a  few  drops  of  blue.  Any  color  or  tint  may  be 
made  by  simply  wetting  up  some  dry  pigment,  as 
umber,  sienna,  yellow,  green,  etc.,  with  warm 
water,  and  adding  it  little  by  little  to  the  white. 
To  prepare  the  wall  for  kalsomining  wash  off  all 
old  coloring  with  a  sponge  and  water  else  it  will 
be  apt  to  rub  up  with  the  new  kalsomine  and 
cause  streaks,  or  a  coating  of  glue  size  may  be 
spread  on  the  work,  a  quarter  pound  of  dissolved 
glue  in  a  pail  of  water  laid  on  with  the  kalsomine 
Jjrush  and  allowed  to  dry  hard  will  make  the 
work  of  kalsomining  quite  easy,  when  two  coats 
of  kalsomine  are  necessary  to  make  a  good  job, 
but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  a  coat  of  glue 
size  is  necessary  before  the  second  is  applied. 

Keg  Lead. — A  common  term  for  white-lead  ground 
in  oil  and  put  up  in  small  kegs — tub-lead  is  also 
used  in  the  same  sense. 

Kermes. — A  small  insect,  similar  to  the  cochineal 
insect,  from  which  is  obtained  a  brilliant  and  dura- 
ble color. 

Key- — A  guide  mark  made  in  stencil  plates  by  which 
correctness  of  position  is  secured  when  one  stencil 
plate  is  to  be  used  in  stenciling  over  the  marks 
made  by  a  preceding  stencil  plate.  It  consists  in 
the  cutting  of  a  small  portion  of  the  first  stencil 
in  the  one  to  be  used  over  it ;  then  when  these 
openings  are  placed  upon  their  proper  places 
the  stencil  plate  will  be  in  the  right  place  for 
painting  over. 


KREMNITZ  WHITE. 


191 


King's  Yellow-  — A  pigment.  The  sulphuretted 
oxide  of  arsenic ;  same  as  yellow  orpiment,  or  auri- 
pigmentum. 

Knotting. — Shellac  varnish  is  said  to  be  the  best 
coating*  to  put  over  knots  in  wood  before  painting 
it,  to  prevent  the  sap  from  striking  through.  A 
mixture  of  glue  size  and  red-lead  is  sometimes 
used,  gutta-percha  dissolved  in  ether  is  also  a 
good  knotting.  Some  painters,  where  extra  care 
is  requisite,  lay  on  gilding  size  and  put  a  leaf  of 
gold,  silver  or  nickel  upon  each  knot. 

Kowrie  or  Kauri. — A  species  of  resin  or  gum  pro- 
duced by  the  kauri-pine,  a  native  of  New  Zealand. 
It  is  sometimes  found  in  pieces  as  large  as  a  child's 
head,  of  a  dull  amber  color,  where  forests  of  these 
trees  have  formerly  grown,  and  is  obtained  by 
digging.  It  is  also  collected  from  the  trees  from 
which  it  has  newly  exuded,  and  is  then  of  a  whitish 
color.    It  is  used  in  making  varnishes. 

Kremnitz  White.— White  carbonate  of  lead. 


192 


L 

Label.  {Her.) — A  figure  consisting  of  a  horizontal 
stripe  or  fillet,  with  three  points  dependent  from 
it.  A  number  of  changes  are  made  in  the  label, 
some  having  five  points  and  others  extending 
across  the  whole  shield.  Like  other  marks  of 
cadency,  labels  are  sometimes  borne  as  perma- 
nent distinctions  by  a  particular  branch  of  the 
family. 

Lac  Lake. — A  pigment  prepared  from  a  resin  which 
exudes  from  the  branches  of  several  tropical  trees. 
It  is  a  deep,  rich,  transparent  color,  less  brilliant 
and  more  durable  than  the  color  extracted  from 
cochineal  and  kermes,  but  inferior  to  madder  in 
both  these  respects. 

Lacquer. — A  varnish  or  glaze  for  coating  polished 
metals,  wood,  etc.,  to  impart  the  appearance  of 
gold  or  to  prevent  the  sudden  oxidation  of  the 
metal .  For  Brass — mix  8  ounces  shellac,  2  ounces 
annotto,  2  ounces  sandarac,  J  ounce  of  dragon's 
blood,  1  gallon  spirits  of  wine.  Heat  the  article 
to  be  lacquered,  and  apply  the  mixture  with  a 
camePs-hair  brush.  For  Tin — mix  turmeric, 
4  drachms  ;  dragon's  blood,  4  scruples  ;  red  saund- 
ers,  1  scruple ;  shellac,  1  ounce ;  gum  mastic,  5 
drachms  ;  Canada  balsam,  2  drachms  ;  alcohol,  8 
ounces  ;  spirits  of  turpentine,  80  drops. 
Most  of  the  gilt-molding  we  see  is  made  to  look 


LAKE. 


193 


like  gold  by  lacquering-  over  silver-leaf,  tin-foil,etc, 
the  lacquer  used  being-  made  of  gums  dissolved  in 
naphtha,  spirits  of  wine,  or  other  volatile  oil,  with 
various  coloring  substances,  as  dragon's  blood, 
saffron,  etc. 

Lake. — The  name  given  to  certain  pigments,  many 
of  which  are  a  deep  red  or  maroon  color.  Yet 
several  of  other  colors  are  included  under  this 
name  as  green  lake,  yellow  lake,  etc.  The  lakes 
are  numerous,  both  from  variety  of  appellations 
and  the  substances  from  which  they  are  prepared. 
The  coloring  matter  of  common  red  lake  is  Brazil 
wood,  which  affords  a  very  fugitive  color.  Super- 
ior red  lakes  are  prepared  from  cochineal,  lac  and 
kermes ;  but  the  best  of  all  is  prepared  from  the 
root  of  the  madder  plant.  All  lakes  ground  in 
linseed  oil  are  disposed  to  become  livery  or  thick, 
but  ground  in  poppy  oil  they  keep  better — a  hint 
some  of  the  prepared-color  makers  may  utilize. 
The  adulteration  of  lakes,  particularly  of  madder 
lake,  is  carried  on  to  a  great  extent  by  the  manu- 
facturers, but  we  have  at  command  various 
processes  by  which  we  may  determine  their  puri- 
ty. Every  lake  with  alumnia  for  a  base,  is  solu- 
ble in  muriatic  acid,  or  in  vinegar  to  which  a  few 
drops  of  the  acid  have  been  added.  After  the 
lake  has  been  dissolved  ether  is  added  and  the 
whole  well  shaken.  If  the  lake  has  been  adulter- 
ated with  Pernambuca,  japan  or  Brazil  wood 
lakes,  the  ether  will  be  colored  a  bright  gold 
color.  If  adulterated  with  Brazil  wood,  an  effer- 
vescence will  occur,  and  a  small  quantity  of  iodine 
dropped  in  will  color  the  solution  blue. 

Water  is  not  colored  with  madder  lakes,  while 
it  is  colored  with  carmine  lakes. 


194 


LAMP-BLACK. 


Violet  lake  will  turn  to  a  dirty  orange  color  if 
moistened  with  muriatic  acid,  when  adulterated. 
Madder  lake  adulterated  with  Prussian  blue  is 
changed  to  green  by  the  acid. 

Scarlet  lake  is  prepared  from  cochineal ;  it  is  a 
beautiful  transparent  color,  of  excellent  body, 
working  well  in  both  water  and  oil.  When  mixed 
with  whites  to  form  tints  it  is  not  permanent,  and 
it  also  soon  fades  if  laid  on  as  a  glazing.  In  the 
manufacture  of  lakes,  the  coloring  matter  is  ex- 
tracted, and  then  to  precipitate  the  solution  alum 
or  alkali  is  thrown  in,  and  this  falling  to  the  bot- 
tom and  becoming  intimately  intermixed  with  the 
sediment  which  is  dried  and  ground  into  dry  lake 
powder,  gives  the  painter  very  often  serious  trou- 
ble. He  finds  that  in  some  cases  his  paint  chips 
or  flakes,  or  the  varnish  put  over  it  does  so,  while 
the  same  varnish  on  other  colors  does  not.  He 
also  finds  that  the  color  "  livers  up"  and  "  works 
tough"  and  of  all  the  paint  in  the  shop  none  will 
give  him  so  much  difficulty  to  make  a  good  job. 
So  great  is  the  trouble  with  lakes,  that  many 
painters  have  discarded  them  entirely,  and  now 
depend  solely  upon  carmine  to  form  the  desired 
color ;  which  is  done  by  making  the  ground  either 
light  or  dark  red,  then  glazing  with  carmine. 
Lamp-Black.—  Pure  carbon.  First  on  the  list  of 
black  pigments  is  lamp-black  ;  and  although  of 
late  years  its  use  has  been  limited  owing  to  its 
oleaginous  nature,  it  still  has  a  place  in  many  car- 
riage paint  shops,  and  proves  to  be  a  very  use- 
ful pigment.  It  is  made  in  the  following  manner: 
The  first  requisite  is  a  receiver  to  hold  the  smoke 
generated  from  a  large  lamp,  in  which  oil  or  other 
fatty  substance  is  burned,  or  it  may  be  produced 


LEMON  COLOR. 


195 


from  a  kettle  of  burning-  resin ;  but  the  oil-lamp 
produces  the  best  lamp-black,  and  the  best  vege- 
table oil  gives  the  finest  color  and  quality  of  pig- 
ment. A  large  cone-topped  building,  similar  to 
our  gas-receivers,  is  fitted  with  a  movable  interior 
roof,  which  just  fits  the  inside  of  the  building  and 
is  raised  and  lowered  by  a  rope  and  pulley  from  the 
top.  The  smoke  from  the  burning  resin  or  oil  is 
allowed  to  enter  near  the  bottom,  and  there  is  a 
hole  in  the  roof  affording  a  certain  amount  of  draft 
and  allowing  the  escape  of  the  lighter  portions  of 
smoke. 

When  a  quantity  of  soot  is  formed  in  the  receiv- 
er the  lamp  or  fire  is  extinguished,  and  the  mova- 
ble roof  is  lowered  from  the  outside  to  the  bottom. 
This  scrapes  down  the  large  black  flakes  which 
have  adhered  to  the  sides  of  the  receiver,  and 
which— after  purification  by  burning  and  sifting 
to  remove  what  oily  substance  still  remains— be- 
comes the  lamp-black  of  the  painter. 

Laps. — In  laying  a  coat  of  paint  or  varnish  it  some- 
times happens  that  one  part  will  dry  or  set  before 
the  part  next  adjoining  is  touched  with  the  brush, 
then  when  that  part  is  touched  the  paint  or  var- 
nish will  lap  over  and  cause  a  sort  of  ridge  to  be 
formed— called  a  lap. 

Lavender. — A  grayish  blue  color,  made  by  adding 
Prussian  blue  to  dark  lead  color. 

Lead.— (See  White  Lead.) 

Lead  Color. — The  color  of  the  metal  lead,  made  by 
mixing  eight  parts  of  white,  one  black,  and  one  of 
blue. 

Lemon  Color.— The  color  of  the  lemon,  made  by 


196 


LEMON  YELLOW. 


mixing  five  parts  of  lemon  yellow,  and  two  parts 
of  white. 

Lemon  Yellow. — A  beautiful  light  and  vivid  color. 
It  is  not  liable  to  change  by  damp  or  impure  air, 
or  by  the  action  of  light,  or  by  the  steel  palette- 
knife,  or  by  mixture  with  other  pigments  either  in 
water  or  oil.  Though  possessing  the  name,  it  is 
not  the  true  color  of  the  lemon.  (See  Baryta 
Yellow.) 

Lead  Poisoning. — A  disease  which  attacks  those 
who  are  constantly  handling  white-lead,  or  those 
who  have  for  a  long  time  been  using  water  charg- 
ed with  lead  salt.  It  assumes  four  phases  :  Lead 
colic,  lead  rheumatism,  lead  palsy,  disease  of  the 
brain. 

The  first  mentioned  is  by  far  the  most  frequent, 
and  is  characterized  by  sharp  continuous  abdom- 
inal pains  which  are  usually  diminished  on  pres- 
sure ;  by  hardness  and  depression  of  the  abdominal 
walls  ;  slowness  of  the  pulse  and  general  disturb- 
ance of  the  whole  system.  The  blue  line  on  the 
gums  serves  at  once  to  distinguish  it  from  other 
colic. 

Persons  exposed  from  their  occupation  to  the 
risk  of  lead-poisoning  should  be  especially  attentive 
to  cleanliness;  and  if  the}^  combine  the  frequent 
application  of  the  bath  with  the  use  of  sulphuric 
lemonade  as  a  drink  they  may  escape  the  effects 
of  metallic  poison. 

Lettering. — The  painting  of  letters  on  wagons,  cars, 
and  stages,  is  one  of  the  finest  branches  of  the 
trade,  and  it  is  made  a  specialty  by  many,  par- 
ticularly in  large  cities.  The  work  is  much  finer 
than  the  work  of  a  sign  writer,  and  the  style  of 


LETTERING. 


197 


letters  used  are  in  most  cases  entirely  different. 
The  wag-on  letter  work  is  invariably  varnished, 
while  the  sign-painter's  work  is  seldom  coated 
over  ;  the  former  doing-  his  work  with  quick-dry- 
ing colors  or  size,  and  the  latter  with  slow-drying 


Fig.  34.— New  York  Style  of  Roman  Letter. 


oil-colors  and  oil-size.  It  is  not  our  intention  to 
give  a  lengthy  treatise  on  the  art  of  lettering,  but 
sufficient  to  notice  the  principal  points  thereof. 
Taking-  the  Roman  letter  for  a  base,  we  find  that 
almost  every  section  of  the  country  or  large  city 


Fig.  35.— Boston  Roman  Letter. 


has  a  peculiar  style  of  letter  as,  for  example,  the 
New  York  and  Boston  Roman  are  widely  different 
in  general  form,  as  shown  in  the  engravings,  and 
it  is  difficult  to  lay  out  an  alphabet  which  will  be 
pronounced  perfect  by  people  in  .different  places. 


LETTERING. 


The  New  York  Roman  is  considered  the  handsom- 
est by  those  living"  in  that  city  and  vicinity,  and 
just  so  with  Boston,  Chicago,  etc.,  each  think  their 
style  the  best.  There  is  one  thing  that  may  be 
said  of  New  York,  and  that  is,  there  is  such  a 
conglomeration  of  styles  to  be  seen,  that  one  can 
scarcely  tell  what  is  local  and  what  has  been  taken 
from  some  other  city.  This  is  owing  to  the  influx 
of  letterers  from  all  parts  of  the  world,  and  par- 
ticularly from  Paris.  The  French  letterers  have 
made  sad  havoc  with  our  lettering  business,  and 
although  in  some  cases  improvement  is  seen,  as  a 
rule,  the  standard  is  far  below  that  recognized  as 


Fig.  36.— Full  Block  Letters. 


national.  The  letters  on  a  vehicle  should  be  bold ; 
that  is,  as  free  from  fantastic  twists  and  turns  as 
possible,so  that  the  hurried  reader  may  comprehend 
at  once  its  import.  If  one  is  obliged  to  stop  a  car  to 
study  out  the  lines  of  letters,  before  risking  him- 
self on  a  unknown  journey,  the  "headway"  of 
the  road  would  be  seriously  interfered  with. 
Therefore  on  such  work  the  Gothic  letter  is  exten- 
sively used.  The  painter  knows  this  style  better 
by  the  name  of  "Block,"  and  he  has  the  "Full 
Block"  and  "  Half  Block,"  plain  or  ornamented, 
to  choose  from.  Then  there  is  another  style,  call- 
ed also  by  some  "block,"  but  the  proper  name  of 


LETTERING. 


199 


which  is  "  Antique."  These  forms  of  letters  have, 
of  late  years,  been  twisted  into  every  conceivable 
shape  so  that  their  identity  is  almost  lost. 

So  great  a  number  of  st3^1es  present  themselves 
that  we  forego  all  thought  of  illustrating  them 
and  will  leave  the  reader  to  choose  a  style  from 
the  myriads  of  examples,  while  we  describe  how  the 
work  is  done. 

The  tools  necessary  for  doing  lettering  are  not 
numerous,  and  the  whole  outfit  may  be  carried 
in  the  pocket,  if  need  be.  A  palette  (q.  v.)  may 
be  made  which  folds  together  in  halves,  as  shown 
in  the  engraving,  by  simply  adding  a  pair  of  small 


Fig.  37.— Concord  Style  of  Lettering  for  Express 
Wagons. 

brass  hinges  and  a  wooden  button  after  the  pal- 
ette has  been  cut  through  its  centre.  A  rest-stick 
may  be  made  in  sections,  using-  the  brass  ferrules 
of  a  fishing-pole.  A  pair  of  dividers,  and  a  box 
containing  pencils  is  all  that  will  be  necessary  to 
carry  from  place  to  place.  The  pencils  for  letter- 
ing should  be  of  the  best  quality,  and  always 
be  kept  well  greased  and  straight  when  not  in  use. 
Sable-hair  pencils  are  decidedly  the  best  for  either 
paint  or  gold -size,  and  these  are  described  under 
their  appropriate  head. 

The  paint  used  should  be  well  ground,  and,  al- 
though it  is  desirable  to  have  it  dry  quickly,  a  few 
drops  of  raw  oil  will  cause  it  to  work  better  under 


200 


LETTERING. 


the  pencil,  and  not  delay  the  drying-  to  any  great 
extent.  Tube  colors  are  not  so  well  adapted  for 
lettering-  as  those  freshly  mixed  on  the  stone, 
thoug-h  some  prefer  them.  They  are  too  "  short/' 
t.  e.,  they  will  not  flow  down  nicely  and  pencil 
marks  are  thus  made  which  are  unsig-htly.  The 
palette  cup  should  he  well  supplied  with  turpentine, 

 ay 

REST  STICK. 


Fig.  38.— Palette  and  Rest  Stick. 

and  the  paint  be  thinned  and  well  worked  with 
the  pencil,  before  putting-  it  on  the  work. 

To  put  on  g-old  or  silver  leaf  size  must  be  used, 
and  the  panels  must  be  prepared  to  prevent  the  leaf 
from  adhering-  to  any  part  not  sized .  To  do  this, 
just  rub  the  panel  with  pulverized  pumice-stone 
and  water,  wash  off,  and  dry  well  with  a  chamois. 
Then  with  a  bag  of  whiting-,  pounce  over  every 
part  of  the  panel,  leaving-  a  thin  film  of  dust  upon 


LETTERING. 


201 


it ;  gently  dust  this  over  with  a  soft  duster  to  re- 
move all  superfluous  whiting-,  then  begin  the  lay- 
ing out  of  the  letters.  If  it  be  the  sides  of  a  top 
wagon,  where  a  circular  line  is  desired,  stick  a 
tack,  or  an  awl  into  the  floor  or  other  place,  in 
line  of  the  centre,  and  tie  a  string  to  it,  then  with 
a  piece  of  chalk,  allowing  the  string  to  hold 
the  hand  within  the  desired  boundary,  strike  the 
lines.  It  is  not  considered  good  taste  to  make 
two  circular  lines  follow  each  other,  there  should 
be  a  straight  line,  an  ornament,  or  stripe  immedi- 
ately below  the  circle,  as  shown  in  the  engraving. 


Fig.  39.— Laying  Out  Lettering. 

The  lines  being  drawn  for  the  extreme  boundary  of 
the  letters  at  the  top  and  bottom,  it  may  be  well, 
as  some  do,  to  mark  lines  for  the  top  and  bottom 
bars  of  the  letters.  Spell  out  the  words  to  be  put 
on,  and  make  a  dot  of  chalk  for  the  space  of  each 
letter,  and  also  for  the  space  between  the  words 
and  mark  these  spaces  with  a  cross.  Many  pro- 
fessionals mark  out  very  carefully  each  letter  with 
chalk  or  pencil,  before  they  begin  the  painting, 
but  this  is  like  the  telegraph  operator  who  reads 
from  a  printed  ribbon  ;  another  who  reads  by 
sound  can  do  better.  Just  so  with  the  letterer 
who  learns  to  paint  the  letters  directly  with  the 


202 


LETTERING. 


pencil,  he  will  produce  work  which  seems  freer, 
not  so  stiff  and  mechanical,  as  that  done  by  the 
one  who  follows  the  chalk  mark. 

For  lettering-  to  be  in  gold,  a  medium  setting* 
size  should  be  used,  and  care  should  be  taken  that 
it  is  so  mixed  that  it  will  flow  nicely,  and  not  set 
with  bubbles  or  heavy  flows  in  it.  Under  the 
heading  "size"  or  " gilding  size"  the  readers  will 
find  full  directions  for  making  several  qualities. 
For  sign  work  oil-size  only  should  be  used. 

The  shading  of  a  letter  gives  it  prominence,  or,  as 
the  saying  is,  throws  it  out,  and  it  is  of  as  much  im- 
portance to  learn  to  shade  well  as 
it  is  to  make  a  letter.  The  word 
shade  is  used  by  most  painters  to 
designate  the  thickness,  while  a 
shade  proper  is  called  "  cast  shad- 
ow.*' If  a  letter  be  cut  out  of 
an  inch-board  and  placed  in  posi- 
tion, the  idea  of  a  shade  will  be  at 
once  given — the  thickness — while,  FlG  4o._shad- 
if  the  light  be  allowed  to  fall  upon  ing  of  Paint- 
the  letter  as  it  stands,  so  as  to  ed  Letter. 
clearly  define  its  outline,  we  have 
the  "cast  shadow."  Shading  on  painted  letters  is 
seldom  allowed  to  touch  the  letter  (see  engraving) 
a  distance  of  at  least  one-eighth  of  an  inch  is  al- 
lowed, which  prevents  the  clumsy  appearance 
otherwise  given.  Gold  or  silver  on  the  other  hand 
is  always  shaded  close  to  the  letter.  A  shade 
should  not  be  heavier  than  the  bar  close  to  the  let- 
ters, except  when  it  is  made  double  (as  shown  in 
cut)  or  more,  even  made  into  a  perspective  letter, 
where  the  shade  forms  the  bulk  of  the  whole — the 
face  of  the  letter  being  but  a  trifling  affair,  com- 


LILAC. 


203 


pared  with  it.  There  is  no  law  or  even  custom  to 
govern  the  width,  form  or  color  of  a  shade,  so  long- 
as  one  keeps  within  the  hounds  of  harmony  of  con- 
trast or  analogy.  A  blue  letter  upon  a  red  ground 
or  vice  versa,  will  invariably  cause  difficulty  to 
decipher,  or  pain,  to  an  educated  eye,  simply 
because  the  harmony  of  contrast 
is  overridden,  but  by  simply  add- 
ing to  the  edge  of  the  letter  a 
white  line,  the  difficulty  will  be 
overcome.  The  addition  to  such 
a  letter  of  a  green  shade,  and  we 
outstep  the  pale  of  harmony  alto- 
gether ;  as  before  said,  so  long  as 
the  painter  keeps  within  a  reason- 
able degree  of  harmonic  color,  he 
need  not  worry  about  the  width 
of  his  shading. 


Fig.  41.— Double 
Shade  of  Let- 
ter. 


Lightning  Gilder-— A  contrivance  for  laying  gold- 
leaf  on  stripes,  consisting  of  rubber  wheels  of 
various  widths,  fitted  to  a  handle.  The  proper 
width  being  chosen,  the  book  of  gold  is  opened 
and  the  wheel  is  rolled  over  the  gold,  which  ad- 
heres to  it  and  it  is  then  transferred  to  the  part  of 
the  work  which  has  been  sized. 

For  rapidity,  economy  of  gold,  etc.,  it  seems  to 
answer  a  very  good  purpose.  It  is  a  patented 
article. 

Light  Red- — An  ochre  of  a  russet-orange  color. 

Light  Buff. — A  color  formed  of  5  parts  of  white  and 
3  parts  yellow  ochre. 

Lilac-— The  color  of  lilac  flowers  ;  made  by  mixing 
white,  carmine  and  ultramarine  blue. 


204 


LINE. 


Line. — A  fine  or  narrow  mark  made  with  a  striping 
pencil  or  pen.  Lines  are  always  less  than  one- 
sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  width  ;  if  wider  marks  are 
made  they  are  called  stripes.    {See  Striping.) 

London  Smoke. — A  color  made  by  mixing*  two 
parts  burnt  umber  with  one  of  red  and  one  of 
white. 

Lime  Water. — The  clear  water  found  standing"  upon 
slaked  lime  may  be  used  to  advantage  by  the 
painter  in  preventing  the  deposit  of  pigment 
from  vehicle.  It  readily  assimilates  with  oil,  and 
when  added  to  white-lead  and  oil  it  forms  a  sort 
of  cement  which  is  very  durable.  Some  manufact- 
urers of  prepared  paints  use  it  extensively  in 
their  preparations  in  order  to  keep  the  pigment  in 
suspension,  or,  in  other  words,  to  prevent  settling 
of  heavy  pigment  in  the  can  or  package. 

Live  ring  Up. — A  term  applied  to  paint  which,  owing 
to  the  mixture  of  improper  or  inferior  ingredients, 
will  coagulate,  thicken,  or,  as  better  expressed, 
"liver  up."  A  poor  quality  of  japan  will  some- 
times cause  paint  to  thus  liver  up,  and  again  it 
may  cause  a  chemical  action  of  heat.  We  have 
repeatedly  seen  paint  become  so  hot  as  to  prevent 
the  handling  of  the  cup  without  a  cloth  holder, 
and  others  testify  that  paint  has  even  blazed 
within  the  cup,  due  to  chemical  disagreement  of 
the  ingredients  of  the  paint. 

Locomotive  Varnish. — A  varnish  intended  more 
particularly  for  locomotives  which,  being  varnish- 
ed more  frequently  than  cars,  and  the  varnish  on 
them  being  protected  somewhat  by  the  oil  from 
the  "  waste  "  used  in  cleaning  them,  do  not  re- 


LUMINOUS  COLORS. 


205 


quire  so  durable  an  article  as  railway  coach 
finishing,  and  usually  sufficient  time  cannot  be 
given  for  drying-,  we  therefore  commend  locomo- 
tive finishing  in  place  of  it.  The  dispensing 
with  a  quicker  drying  varnish  for  under  coats  is 
just  as  desirable  on  the  inside  as  on  the  outside  of 
cars,  and  because  of  the  increased  durability,  we 
recommend  the  use  of  locomotive  finishing  for 
all  coats  on  locomotives  and  tenders,  when  time 
can  be  taken  ;  but  when  dispatch  is  indispensible 
or  of  more  importance  than  durability  many  use 
inside  coach  rubbing  and  locomotive  rubbing  for 
the  under  coats. 

Luminous  Colors. — Yellow,  red,  orange,  light 
green  and  the  light  tones  of  blue  and  white. 


206 


M 

Madder.— The  root  of  a  plant  (Rubia)  found  in  the 
tropical  parts  of  both  the  old  and  new  world  ;  the 
finest  quality,  however,  comes  to  us  from  the 
government  of  Baku  on  the  Caspian  sea.  Many 
rich  colors  are  prepared  from  madder  root 
— which  see. 

Madder  Carmine. — A  pigment  prepared  from  mad- 
der, and  differing-  from  the  rose  lakes  of  madder 
principally  in  texture,  and  in  the  greater  rich- 
ness, depth  and  transparency  of  its  color,  which 
is  of  various  hues,  from  rose  color  to  crimson. 

Madder  Lake. — A  pigment  made  from  madder,  by 
boiling-  it  in  a  solution  of  alum,  then  filtering-  the 
liquid  and  adding-  sufficient  carbonate  of  soda  to 
cause  precipitation  of  the  red  coloring-  matter 
of  the  madder,  which  alone  has  been  dissolved  by 
the  boiling-  solution  of  alum.  This  lake  is  used  in 
both  oil  and  water  painting-. 

Madder  Orange. — A  madder  lake  of  an  orang-e  hue, 
varying-  from  yellow  to  rose-colored  brown. 

Madder  Purple. — A  very  rich  deep  carmine,  pre- 
pared from  madder.  Though  not  a  brilliant 
purple,  its  richness,  durability,  transparency  and 
superiority  of  color,  have  given  it  the  preference 
to  the  purple  of  gold-purple,  and  to  burnt  car- 
mine. 


MARBLING. 


207 


Madder  Yellow. — A  pigment  made  from  madder 
root,  a  reddish  yellow  hue. 

Magenta. — A  red  or  crimson  color  extracted  from 
aniline,  used  principally  as  a  dye. 

Magenta  Lake. — A  pigment  of  a  dark  purple  shade, 
imitating  the  color  of  magenta  dyes. 

Magilp. — A  composition  of  linseed  oil,  mastic  varnish 
and  turpentine,  used  by  artists  as  a  vehicle  for 
their  glazes. 

Mahl-Stick. — A  stick  upon  which  a  painter  leans  his 
hand  when  at  work  ;  sometimes  called  a  rest-stick. 
Those  which  are  fitted  with  joints  as  a  fishing-pole 
are  very  convenient  to  carry  in  the  pocket.  Maul- 
sticks are  made  from  three  to  four  feet  in  length. 

Malachite.  {Hungary  or  Mountain  Green.) — An 
expensive  pigment  made  from  a  mineral  found  in 
the  Ural  Mountains.  It  is  a  beautiful  shade  of 
green. 

Manganese. — A  metal  the  oxides  of  which  are  used 
as  siccatives  or  driers  for  oil,  etc.,  also  a  pigment 
of  considerable  body. 

Mantling  or  Lambrequin.  (Her.)— An  ornament 
depicted  as  hanging  down  from  the  helmet,  and 
behind  the  escutcheon. 

Marbling. — In  painting  the  imitation  of  various 
kinds  of  marble,  general  directions  for  which 
follow : 

To  Imitate  Black  and  Gold  Makble. — First 
color  the  surface  to  be  marbled  with  ivory-black  ; 
second,  coat  with  black  japan.  Then  for  the  vein- 
ing,  mix  white,  yellow  ochre  and  a  very  little 
vermilion  to  form  a  gold  color ;  dip  a  pencil  in 


208 


MARBLING. 


this  color  and  daub  on  the  ground  with  great 
freedom  some  large  patches,  from  which  small 
threads  must  be  drawn  in  various  directions.  In 
the  deepest  parts  of  the  black  a  white  vein  is  run 
with  a  large  number  of  fine  scraggly  lines  attached 
to  it,  but  care  must  be  taken  that  these  lines  are 
connected  with  and  run  in  a  similar  direction  to 
the  main  vein.  This  work  may  be  done  either 
with  oil  or  distemper  colors.  One  or  two  coats  of 
varnish  completes  the  work. 

Jasper  Marble. — The  ground  should  be  bluish 
white ;  then  put  on  patches  of  rich  reds  or  rose 
pink,  leaving  spaces  of  white ;  then  partly  cover 
these  spaces  with  various  browns  to  form  fossils ; 
in  some  places  run  in  veins  ;  then  put  in  a  few 
white  spots  to  the  centre  of  some  of  the  red 
patches,  and  leave  in  places  masses  of  the  ground 
nearly  white ;  varnish. 

Sienna  Marble.— Prepare  a  smooth  light  buff 
ground.  Then  mix  for  the  veining  a  variety  of 
tints,  with  ivory-black  and  Indian  red  ;  by  add- 
ing a  little  white  to  this,  other  shades  are  formed. 
Also  mix  some  tints  from  Indian  red  and  Prussian 
blue,  with  white.  Now  give  the  surface  a  thin 
coat  of  the  buff  ground  color  and  while  wet,  take 
a  large  feather,  dip  it  into  turpentine,  then  into 
the  darkest  vein  color,  and  form  a  leading  vein 
right  across  the  work,  giving  it  a  broken  or  irreg- 
ular appearance ;  run  a  few  straggling  veins  from 
this  ;  now  use  the  feather  in  the  neutral  tints  and 
put  in  some  smaller  veins,  breaking  it  into  small 
irregular  pieces  on,  or  springing  from  the  leading 
vein.  Next  wipe  over  the  whole  with  a  badger 
brush  until  it  appears  soft  and  mellow;  when 
dry,  slightly  grease  the  surface  with  linseed  oil, 


MARBLING. 


209 


then  with  a  feather  dipped  in  very  thin  white 
make  irregular  touches  in  and  about  the  large 
veins  ;  blend  softly  with  the  badger;  then  go  over 
and  glaze  patches  here  and  there,  using  yellow 
ochre  and  raw  sienna,  or  a  little  crimson  lake. 
Touch  up  the  leading  vein  with  a  little  ivory- 
black,  let  dry  and  varnish. 

Black  Bardella  Marble. — Ground  color,  a  very 
light  lead  color.  With  a  feather  and  black, 
figure  all  over  in  lines  running  into  each  other, 
very  close  in  places,  some  very  fine  with  short 
lines  or  strokes  crossing  them,  soften  with  the 
badger  brush,  then  glaze  over  with  thin  white, 
stronger  in  some  places  than  others  ;  touch  up 
the  lines  with  fine  lines  of  black. 

Italian  Pink  Marble. — Over  a  white  ground  apply 
a  coat  of  white  paint,  compound  tints  of  ultrama- 
rine and  white-lead,  and  vermilion  and  white-lead, 
each  being  mixed  with  equal  quantities  of  oil  and 
turpentine,  and  with  these  dab  patches  on  the 
white  paint  while  yet  wet,  and  with  a  brush  well 
soften  the  patches  together.  On  the  palette  place 
some  Indian  red,  and  with  a  small  feather  dipped 
in  turpentine,  and  some  of  the  Indian  red,  work 
the  pattern  and  well  soften.  When  this  is  dry,  mix 
some  white-lead,  mixed  rather  thinly  with  turpen- 
tine, and  flat  the  whole  of  the  work,  then  with  a 
feather  dipped  in  turpentine  scumble  over  the  work, 
and  subsequently  put  in  whites  with  white-lead 
and  turpentine.  When  the  work  is  perfectly  hard 
it  is  to  be  varnished. 

Verde  Antique. — Is  either  black  or  dark  green,  the 
marbling  colors  being  dark  brown  and  green. 
Scumble  over  the  work  with  these,  then  with  Bruns- 


210 


MARBLING. 


wick  green  and  white-lead  scumble  over  again, 
and  soften  with  a  badger  ;  next  with  a  fitch  paint 
masses  of  white  of  various  shapes — squares,  irreg- 
ular triangles,  etc. — and  similar  masses  of  black. 
The  student  may  here  be  reminded  of  the  differ- 
ence between  scumbling  and  glazing-,  in  the  latter 
the  colors  are  thinly  mixed  so  as  to  be  transparent ; 
in  the  former,  the  color  is  mixed  thick,  and  thinly 
spread  or  rubbed  on  it  with  a  hard  brush. 
Egyptian  Green  Marble.— This  marble  in  color 
closely  resembles  Verde  Antique  ;  it  is  a  superior 
serpentine  ;  and  there  are  several  sorts,  which  are 
called  by  different  names,  which  would  be  of  little 
service  to  the  painter,  as  they  are  all  for  his  pur- 
poses comprehended  under  one  title.  Egyptian 
green  differs  from  Verde  Antique  in  the  form  of 
the  veins,  which  run  in  a  more  horizontal  direction, 
having  a  greater  quantity  of  small  fossil  substan- 
ces mixed  with  it,  and  the  dark  veins  frequently 
running  in  streaks,  which  often  appear  as  if  broken 
by  violence. 

White  Veined  Marble. — The  ground  is  white,  and 
the  veins  may  be  made  with  a  marbling  crayon  or 
camel 's-hair  brush  while  the  ground  is  wet. 

Florentine  Marble. — The  ground  is  white,  Indian 
red  and  black,  mixed  to  form  a  very  light  reddish 
neutral  tint.  The  veins  are  umber  or  burnt  sienna ; 
they  are  laid  on  very  irregular,  while  the  ground 
is  wet;  sometimes  they  are  very  close  together, 
and  then  seem  to  break  suddenly  into  forms  of 
rocks  or  ruins — an  effect  which  must  be  studied 
from  natural  specimens,  and  be  imitated  by  hand. 

Black  and  Gold  Marble. — The  ground  is  black  : 
paint  the  larg-e  spots  from  which  the  fibrous  veins 


MARBLING. 


211 


are  to  run  with  yellow  ochre  and  white,  the  bright 
tone  of  which  must  be  heightened  by  the  addition 
of  vermilion.  These  masses  must  be  dabbed  with 
freedom  upon  the  ground  with  a  brush  full  of 
color,  and  while  quite  wet,  threads  must  be 
drawn  from  them  in  all  directions,  some  of  course 
being  larger  and  thicker  than  others. 

A  white  vein  is  sometimes  seen  running  in  the 
deepest  parts  of  the  black,  with  small  threads  at- 
tached to  it,  crossing  each  other  and  the  yellow 
veins  in  all  directions. 

Another  way,  is  to  paint  the  ground  a  deep 
ivory -black ;  put  on  the  veins  in  white,  yellow 
ochre  and  burnt  and  raw  sienna,  using  a  camel's- 
hair  brush ;  glaze  the  spaces  between  the  veins 
with  a  thin  coat  of  gray  or  white,  over  which  pass 
a  few  white  veins.  The  veins  may  also  be  put  in 
with  gold  leaf. 
Porphyry  Marble. — Mix  the  ground  color  of  Vene- 
tain  red  with  a  little  vermilion  and  white,  until  it 
is  of  the  tint  required.  The  first  layer  of  spots  is 
produced  by  sprinkling  in  the  following  manner  : 
Mix  some  of  the  ground  color  with  a  large  quan- 
tity of  white  in  a  paint-pot,  and  use  a  large  brush 
which  has  been  well  worked  in  the  color  ;  hold  the 
palette-knife  over  the  edge,  so  that  as  much  as 
possible  of  the  color  may  be  forced  out  of  it ; 
then,  taking  the  handle  of  the  brush  between  the 
palms  of  the  hands,  roll  it  to  and  fro  with  rapid 
motion,  the  ends  of  the  hairs  being  below  the  level 
of  the  paint-pot,  but  not  touching  the  paint — this 
is  called  "  wringing  out"  the  brush — and  a  further 
quantity  of  the  paint  will  be  thus  discharged;  now 
hold  the  handle  of  the  brush  against  it ;  the  color 
that  still  remains  in  it  will  thus  fall  on  the  sur- 


212 


MARINE  GREEN. 


face  in  a  variety  of  small  dots.  Great  care  is  nec- 
essary at  this  stage,  to  distribute  the  spots  equal- 
ly ;  otherwise  while  one  part  of  the  work  will  be 
left  only  partially  spotted,  others  may  be  so  thick- 
ly covered  that  the  drops  will  run  one  into  the 
other  and  make  a  blotch. 

When  the  work  is  dry,  the  sprinkling-  may  be 
repeated  by  dipping-  the  brush  into  a  color  rather 
deeper  than  the  ground  ;  it  may  be  Indian  red  with 
sufficient  white  to  give  it  a  body.  The  sprinkling 
with  this  color  must  be  done  very  sparingly,  and 
rather  more  in  some  parts  than  others. 

The  last  sprinkling  is  to  be  done  with  a  clean 
small  tool  dipped  in  white  paint  only,  and  the 
spots  are  to  be  very  fine.  The  stick  should  be  held 
at  some  distance  from  the  work,  as  the  farther 
away  the  finer  will  be  the  dots.  In  some  speci- 
mens, after  the  three  spatterings  being  done,  a  nar- 
row opaque  white  vein  is  run  among  the  spots,  and 
transparent  threads  drawn  in  various  directions. 

Marine  Green. — The  color  of  the  sea;  a  shade  of 
green. 

Marking  on  Class. — To  mark  out  letters,  etc., 
first  coat  the  glass  over  with  whiting  mixed  with 
water ;  let  dry,  then  with  a  sharpened  stick  mark 
the  desired  letters  or  whatever  upon  the  whitened 
surface,  and  then  paint  or  gild  the  letters  on  the 
reverse  side  of  the  glass.  The  amateur  will  find 
this  an  excellent  plan,  and,  too,  he  may  nicely 
outline  the  letters  after  they  are  thus  marked, 
with  a  fine  line  of  black,  then  when  the  outline  is 
dry  proceed  with  the  gilding. 

Maroon  Color. — A  color  made  by  a  mixture  of 
three  parts  carmine  and  two  parts  yellow. 


MAUVE  PASTE. 


213 


Maroon  Lake. — A  reddish  brown  pigment. 

Massicot. — A  mineral  occurring-  in  shapeless  masses 
of  a  yellow  color,  brittle,  with  earthy  fractures. 
A  protoxide  of  lead,  used  as  a  pigment.  Yellow 
protoxide  of  lead.  The  dross  of  melted  lead  roast- 
ed until  of  a  uniform  yellow  color. 

Mastic. — A  species  of  gum-resin,  used  in  making 
.  an  almost  colorless  varnish,  for  maps,  prints,  etc. 
It  is  imported  chiefly  from  Morocco.  The  name 
"mastic"  is  also  given  to  certain  cements,  com- 
posed of  litharge  and  burned  clay  reduced  to 
powder  then  mixed  to  a  paste  with  linseed  oil. 

Matching. — Making  any  piece  or  pieces  of  wood  of 
which  any  piece  of  furniture  is  made  up,  match  or 
correspond,  so  that  they  may  be  of  a  uniform 
color.  It  will  therefore  be  understood  that  some 
parts  may  require  lightening  and  others  darken- 
ing. For  the  first,  make  a  strong  solution  of  ox- 
alic acid  in  hot  water,  and  add  a  few  drops  of 
spirits  of  nitre,  and  wash  this  carefully  over  the 
parts  to  be  lightened  ;  when  quite  dry,  the  surface 
should  have  two  or  three  coats  of  white  polish. 
(2)  Give  the  parts  to  be  lightened  a  wash  of  a  clean 
white  stain  and  another  of  white  varnish ;  give 
the  intermediate  parts  a  coat  of  common  varnish, 
and  oil  the  untouched  white  parts  ;  bring  all  up  to 
an  equal  tint  by  a  darkening  stain,  if  necessary. 
Darkening. — The  darkeners  generally  used  are  log- 
wood, lime,  brown  soft-soap,  dyed  oil,  and  various 
chemicals,  such  as  aquafortis,  sulphate  of  iron, 
nitrate  of  silver,  etc. 

Mauve  Paste. — A  scenic  paint,  the  same  color  its 
name  implies. 


214  MENHADEN  OIL. 

Menhaden  Oil. — Oil  obtained  from  the  fish  known 
as  menhaden  or  moss-bunker,  one  of  the  herring 
family.  It  is  used  as  an  adulterant,  and  a  substi- 
tute for  linseed  oil. 

Milori  Green. — A  sort  of  green  lake,  made  by  mix- 
ing in  certain  proportion  ferrocyanide  of  potas- 
sium, sulphate  of  iron,  acetate  of  lead  and  chromate 
of  potassa.  It  far  surpasses  chrome  green  in  rich- 
ness, possesses  a  good  body,  covers  well,  and  when 
mixed  with  white  in  varying  proportions  it  forms 
a  brilliant  pea-green. 

Mineral  Black. — A  native  impure  oxide  of  carbon 
of  a  soft  texture  found  in  Wales.  It  is  not  so 
black  as  ivory-black,  and  on  account  of  its  solid 
body  it  makes  a  good  preparation  for  black  of  a 
better  color.    Russian  black  is  the  same. 

Mineral  Brown. — A  bright,  transparent  brown, 
something  like  sienna,  made  by  mixing  equal  parts 
of  sulphate  of  copper  and  prussiate  of  potash  in 
water,  then  evaporating  the  water. 

Mineral  Green. — Carbonate  of  copper,  obtained  by 
precipitating  a  hot  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper 
by  carbonate  of  soda. 

Mineral  Yellow.— A  compound  of  oxide  and  chloride 
of  lead,  obtained  by  digesting  powdered  litharge 
in  a  solution  of  common  salt,  then  washing,  dry- 
ing and  fusing  the  product. 

Mittis  Green.— An  arseniate  of  copper  made  by 
mixing  a  solution  of  acetate  or  sulphate  of  copper 
with  arsenite  of  potash.  It  is,  in  fact,  Scheele's 
green. 


MONOGRAM. 


215 


Mixing  Colors. — In  mixing-  colors,  it  is  the  custom 
of  some  painters  to  lay  out  upon  the  stone  the  re- 
quisite quantity  of  various  pigments,  and  then 
mix  and  grind  the  mass  in  the  mill,  but  by  this 
means  dull  or  "  lifeless  "  colors  are  produced.  To 
do  this  properly  the  required  pigments  for  a  given 
color  should  be  mixed  and  ground  separately,  then 
the  proper  proportions  may  be  put  together  and 
thoroughly  mixed.  By  this  means  all  the  fresh- 
ness of  the  color  will  be  retained,  a  more  perfect 
commingling  of  the  particles  will  be  insured,  and 
there  will  be  less  liability  of  separation  in  the  cup, 
or  settling  of  one  heavy  pigment  from  the  others, 
which  is  sure  to  destroy  the  uniformity  of  coloring. 

Mordant. — Any  sticky  matter  employed  to  make 
gold  leaf  or  bronze  adhere — a  size. 

Mossing  Off. — Rubbing  a  varnished  or  painted  sur- 
face with  moss  (trimmer's  stuffing  material),  to 
remove  the  gloss  or  to  smooth  the  surface.  Rub- 
bing with  curled  hair  is  called  "  hairing  off." 

Mottler. — A  flat  camel's-hair  brush.    (See  Brushes.) 

Monochrome. — A  painting-  executed  in  a  single 
color,  but  relieved  by  light  and  shade.  A  draw- 
ing- in  chiaro-oscuro  (q.  v.)  is  a  monochrome, 
whether  in  black  and  white  or  in  any  other  color 
and  white.  The  silhouette  is  not  a  monochrome 
thoug-h  executed  in  a  single  color. 

Monogram. — A  character  composed  of  two  or  more 
letters  of  the  alphabet,  often  interlaced  with  other 
lines  and  used  as  a  cipher  or  abbreviation  of  a  name. 
A  perfect  monogram  is  one  in  which  all  the  letters 
of  the  word  are  to  be  traced.  Painters  and  engrav- 
ers in  Germany  and  Italy  have  used  monograms 


MONOGRAM. 


to  a  large  extent  as  a  means  of  distinguishing 
their  works.  In  these  the  initial  letters  of  their 
names  were  often  interwoven  with  figures  of  a 
symbolical  character,  so  as  to  form  a  rebus  of  the 
artist's  name.  Monograms  are  the  ruling  fashion 
as  ornaments  on  carriage  panels,  and  an  American 
considers  a  handsome  monogram  of  his  name  with 
a  feeling  not  altogether  unlike  that  pride  with 


T.S.  English.  T.S.  Louis  XV. 


T.S.  Modern.  T.S.  Florentine. 


Fig.  42.— Monograms. 

which  a  European  nobleman  considers  his  coat-of- 
arms.  It  is  his  S3^mbol.  If  anyone  should  spit 
on  it,  he  would  feel  it  a  personal  insult.  But  the 
main  office  of  a  monogram  is  and  must  be  that  of 
a  trade-mark.  A  striking  trade-mark,  capable  of 
catching  the  attention  and  impressing  the  memory, 
sells  more  goods  than  the  smartest  traveler  ever 


MONOGRAM. 


217 


did.  In  order  to  fill  this  office,  it  is  necessary  for 
the  letters  to  be  arranged  in  the  design  so  that 
they  both  tell  the  name  in  a  plain  and  absolutely 


Fig.  43.— Monogram  and         Fig.  44.— Monogram  and 
Crest.  Coronet. 


Fig.  45.— Coat-of-         Fig.  46.— Garter,  Monogram 
Arms.  and  Crown. 

unequivocal  manner,  and  impress  it  on  the  mem- 
ory either  by  the  beauty  of  the  design  or  by  awak- 
ening ideas  which  easily  and  properly  associate  the 
name  with  the  business.     But  to  invent  such  a 


MONOGRAM. 


monogram  requires  a  sort  of  talent.  Some  people 
have  quite  a  knack  for  contrivances  of  the  kind, 
while  others  are  unable  to  make  even  the  slightest 
device.  The  carriage-painter,  however,  will  often 
be  asked  to  invent  a  monogram  whether  he  has 
talent  for  the  business  or  not.  In  such  a  case,  he 
is  likely  to  go  to  a  monogram-book  for  support. 
J.  Sabin  &  Sons,  of  New  York,  publish  such  a  book, 
containing  about  one  thousand  designs,  of  which 
several  are  very  good  and  only  a  few  absolutely 


Fig.  47.— Coat-of-Arms,  with  Supporters. 

bad.  We  could  illustrate  this  article  on  mono- 
grams b}^  hundreds  of  cuts,  but  it  might  be  a  hun- 
dred years  before  a  single  one  of  the  combina- 
tions of  letters  would  be  called  for. 

The  designing  and  proper  execution  of  mono- 
grams is  often  one  of  the  most  puzzling  tasks 
which  a  painter  has  to  undertake,  and  the  follow- 
ing suggestions,  printed  in  "Coach,  Harness 
and  Saddlery,"  by  the  author  of  this  book,  will  be 
found  useful  to  many  of  our  readers. 


MONOGRAM. 


219 


To  lay  out  or  design  a  monogram,  first  procure 
some  well-calendered  letter  or  note  paper,  some 
tissue  paper — or,  what  is  better,  transparent  draw- 
ing paper  or  muslin — and  two  or  three  lead  pencils 
of  different  degrees  of  hardness  :  say,  one  quite 
hard,  another  medium,  and  another  soft.  Next 
decide  upon  the  style  of  monogram  best  suited 
to  your  wants,  and  (supposing  you  have  no  printed 
samples  to  work  by)  lightly  sketch  the  prominent 
letter  on  the  paper,  erasing  with  a  piece  of  rubber 
any  imperfect  marks,  and  carefully  correcting  un- 
til you  are  satisfied  with  the  drawing.  Next,  go 
over  the  lines  with  soft  pencil  to  make  them  black- 
er. Now  lay  over  the  drawing  a  piece  of  tissue 
paper,  and  re-draw  the  lines.  This  is  simply  to 
preserve  the  letter  you  have  perfected.  Remove 
the  tissue  paper,  and  proceed  with  the  hard  pencil 
to  lightly  sketch  the  other  required  letter,  paying 
no  attention  to  interlacing  them  at  this  time,  but 
keeping  the  object  constantly  in  view.  Rub  out 
and  correct  faults  in  the  outlines  until  you  are 
satisfied,  remembering  that  you  need  have  no  fear 
of  destroying  the  letter  first  drawn,  as  you  have  a 
duplicate.  When  the  second  letter  is  drawn  to 
please  3rou,  blacken  the  lines  as  before,  and  work 
the  crossings  or  interlacings.  Now  lay  the  tissue 
paper  over  the  drawing  and  mark  the  second  letter 
in  its  correct  place.  Proceed  in  like  manner  if 
more  than  two  letters  are  to  be  combined.  When 
all  the  single  letters  are  prepared,  lay  the  tissue 
paper  upon  a  piece  of  writing  paper ;  secure  it  by 
pinning  so  that  it  cannot  move,  and  with  a  fine 
needle  pick  the  outlines  carefully.  You  now  have 
a  "  pounce  pattern,"  with  which  you  can  transfer 
the  outlines  to  the  panel,  and  a  tissue  paper  draw- 


/ 


220 


MONOGRAM. 


ing  by  which  you  are  guided  in  making  the  cross- 
ings and  interfacings .  These  form  a  guide  for 
future  work. 

Whenever  a  specimen  hook  of  monograms  is  at 
the  disposal  of  the  designer  the  work  may  be 
greatly  simplified.  In  this  case,  after  a  choice  of 
single  letters  has  been  made,  lay  the  tissue  paper 
over  one  of  these  ;  sketch  this  out  in  detail,  and 
then,  by  placing  the  sketch  over  the  other  letters, 
one  by  one,  and  turning  and  twisting  it  until  it 
< '  comes  right,"  sketch  in  the  others,  shade  up 
the  crossings  or  the  leafing,  and  the  pattern  will 
then  be  ready  for  the  needle  holes.  It  may  be 
mentioned  here  that,  in  case  the  design  is  symmet- 
rical— that  is,  uniform  on  each  side  of  the  centre, 
as  in  the  Florentine  style^the  drawing  should  be 
made  as  follows  :  Fold  and  crease  a  piece  of  writ- 
ing paper ;  open  it  out  flat  and  draAv  one-half  of 
the  design,  allowing  the  crease  in  the  paper  to 
form  the  centre.  Blacken  the  lines  with  soft  pen- 
cil, then  fold  the  paper  again  as  before,  and,  after 
laying  it  on  some  hard  surface,  rub  it  over  with  an 
ivory  or  bone  paper-folder  (or  the  handle  of  a  tooth 
brush)  to  transfer  the  pencil  marks  from  one  side 
to  the  other,  when,  upon  unfolding  the  sheet,  the 
complete  design  will  be  found  accurately  marked 
out.  This  plan  may  be  changed  if  preferred,  by 
first  folding  and  marking  the  paper  as  before,  and 
then  turning  the  marked  side  out,  when  you  may 
proceed  to  pick  with  a  needle  through  both  thick- 
nesses of  paper. 

The  pattern  and  colors  now  being  ready,  the 
next  thing  in  order  is  the  tools.  The  pencils 
should  be  of  red  sable  hair,  bound  in  tin,  with  long 
handles  of  red  cedar.    The  finest  pencils  made  are 


MONOGRAM. 


221 


about  the  size  of  a  knitting-  needle,  but  if  these  can- 
not be  obtained  it  is  an  easy  matter  to  cut  others 
down  to  the  proper  size.  The  hair  should  be  one- 
quarter  of  an  inch  in  length.  A  small  palette 
knife,  with  which  to  mix  colors  on  the  palette, 
tog-ether  with  a  rest  stick,  pounce  bag,  and  small 
bottles  of  Japan  and  turpentine,  will  then  complete 
the  outfit. 

To  begin  the  painting  of  a  monogram  the  first 
requirement  is  to  know  what  color  the  gears  are 
to  be  striped,  as  the  colors  used  in  striping-  almost 
invariably  govern  the  color  or  colors  used  in  the 
ornament.  Exceptions  sometimes  occur,  as  in  the 
case  before  alluded  to  of  coats-of-arms ;  in  this 
case  the  colors  are  arbitrary  and  the  monogram 
should  be  painted  in  the  predominating  color,  if  in 
relief,  or  in  the  color  of  the  coat  of  arms.  When 
painting  in  relief — that  is,  in  one  color  with  its 
tints  and  shades — it  is  a  good  plan  to  first  lay  the 
whole  design  in  with  a  medium  shade  of  the  color, 
which  gives  an  opportunity  to  lay  in  the  shades 
with  the  dark  shades  of  that  color,  and  then  the 
lights  with  tints  of  the  same  color  made  by  the  addi- 
tion of  white.  Man3T  first  lay  in  thew  hole  design  in 
gold  or  silver,  and  then  glaze  one  letter  with  car- 
mine, another  with  blue,  another  with  verdigris, 
and  so  on.  Where  there  are  three  letters,  two 
may  be  colored,  say  Indian  red  glazed  with  car- 
mine, and  the  prominent  letter  with  vermilion, "  cut 
up"  with  dark  red  and  high-lighted  with  vermilion 
and  white.  Asphaltum  is  extensively  used  as  a  glaze 
over  gold  letter.  Carmine  letters  may  be  shaded 
with  asphaltum  and  high-lighted  with  yellow  or  ca- 
nary color.  It  will  be  discovered  by  a  very  little 
practice  that  the  strength  or  tone  of  a  high-light 


222  MOUNTAIN  BLUE. 

may  be  greatly  improved  by  simply  changing"  the 
tint  of  white  03^  a  drop  of  another  color  ;  as,  if  a 
vermilion  ground  is  to  be  high-lighted,  a  drop  of 
red  in  the  white  will  show  better  than  when  the 
pure  white  is  used,  and,  as  such  "  points  "  are 
better  learned  by  experience,  we  leave  them  here. 

Mountain  Blue. — Carbonate  of  copper,  though  used 
as  a  pigment ;  it  is  not  durable,  turning  green  in  a 
short  time. 

Mountain  Green. — A  native  carbonate  of  copper, 
combined  with  white  earth,  and  often  striated 
with  veins  of  mountain-blue,  to  which  it  bears  the 
same  relation  that  green  verditer  does  to  blue 
verditer ;  nor  does  it  differ  from  these  in  any 
property  essential  to  the  painter. 

Mud  Spotting. — A  trouble  experienced  by  owners  of 
carriages  when  mud,  particularly  city  street  mud 
(containing  ammonia)  or  the  mud  of  lime  districts, 
is  allowed  to  dry  upon  a  varnished  surface.  So 
long  as  it  remains  moist  there  is  but  little  danger 
of  spotting,  for  it  is  the  suction  or  capillary  at- 
traction of  the  dry  mud  which  extracts  the  oil 
from  the  varnish.  Most  all  varnishes  are  acted 
on  in  similar  manner.  Washing  and  sunning 
generally  returns  the  gloss  to  the  varnish. 

Muller. — A  block  of  stone  or  glass  used  to  crush  and 
grind  pigment.  It  is  used  in  connection  with  a 
slab  of  marble,  or  a  thick  plate  of  glass. 

Mummy.— A  substance  similar  to  asphaltum  com- 
bined with  animal  remains,  found  in  the  cata- 
combs of  Egypt. 

Munich  Lake. — A  pigment  made  from  Brazil  wood, 
often  used  in  place  of  carmine  on  cheap  work. 


223 


N 

Naples  Yellow. — A  pigment  compounded  of  the 
oxides  of  lead  and  antimony,  anciently  prepared 
at  Naples,  under  the  name  grallolina.  It  is  not 
so  vivid  a  color  as  patent  yellow,  hut  it  is  of  a 
pleasing"  light,  warm,  golden-yellow  tint.  Like 
most  other  yellows,  it  is  opaque,  and  in  this  sense 
is  of  good  hody.  It  is  not  affected  by  the  light  of 
the  sun,  and  may  he  safely  used  in  oil  or  varnish. 
It  is,  however,  liable  to  change,  even  to  blackness 
by  damp  and  impure  air,  when  used  as  a  water 
color,  or  unprotected  by  oil  or  varnish. 

Native  Green. — A  true  chrome  green,  the  coloring 
matter  of  which  is  the  pure  oxide  of  chrome 
which,  being  free  from  lead,  is  durable,  both 
against  the  action  of  sunlight  and  impure  air. 

Native  Manganese  Brown.— A  bog  earth  or  peat, 
the  same  as  cappagh  brown  (which  see). 

Neutral  Colors. — Those  colors  in  which  the  hue  is 
broken  by  partaking  of  the  reflected  colors  of  the 
objects  which  surround  them.  There  are  three 
neutral  colors,  namely,  white,  black  and  gray. 

Normal  Colors. — The  colors  of  the  spectrum,  blue, 
red,  yellow,  orange,  green  and  violet. 

Nowed.  (Her.)— Tied  in  a  knot.  Usually  applied  to 
a  snake  or  the  tail  of  a  dragon. 


224 


NUT  BROWN. 


Nut  Brown. — The  color  of  the  hazel-nut,  made  by  a 
mixture  of  burnt  sienna,  burnt  umber  and  white. 

Nut  Oil. — An  oil  expressed  from  various  nuts  and 
used  as  a  vehicle  by  artists  ;  poppy  oil,  however, 
being"  a  better  drier,  has  superseded  it  of  late 
years. 


225 


o 

Oak  Color. — The  color  of  oak  wood,  made  by  mixing- 
eight  parts  of  white  with  two  of  yellow  ochre. 

Ochre. — A  name  applied  to  certain  metallic  oxides 
occurring-  in  an  earthy  or  pulverant  form,  espe- 
cially to  such  as  are  used  for  pigments ;  as  red 
ochre,  yellow  ochre,  etc.  Golden  ochre  is  a  choice 
variety  of  native  ochre,  and  is  also  manufactured 
similarly  to  chrome  yellow. 

Offer  Up. — The  act  of  trying  the  effect  of  a  desig-n,  or 
of  a  color  in  its  intended  position. 

Oils. — Oily  bodies  are  generally  divided  into  two 
classes,  fixed  or  fat  oils,  and  essential  or  volatile 
oils  ;  but  they  are  entirely  dissimilar,  both  in  pro- 
portion and  composition,  except  in  the  one  com- 
mon property  of  greasiness.  The  two  classes  may 
be  readily  distinguished,  the  essential  oils  emitting- 
at  ordinary  temperatures  an  intensely  odorous 
and  penetrating  vapor,  and,  when  placed  on  paper, 
not  producing  a  permanent  greasy  spot,  while  the 
stain  of  a  fixed  oil  does  not  disappear  by  exposure, 
or  even  when  subjected  to  a  g-entle  heat. 

Drying-oils,  or  siccatives,  vary  from  the  non- 
drying  by  becoming  gradually  converted  into  solid 
masses  by  exposure  to  the  atmosphere.  Their 
principal  use  is  in  the  preparation  of  varnish  and 
paints ;  and  the  more  quickly  they  become  hard 


226 


OILS. 


by  exposure,  the  more  valuable  are  they  for  these 
purposes.  Their  siccative  or  drying-  properties 
may  be  increased  by  adding-  litharge  and  heating 
the  oil  until  it  acquires  a  reddish  hue.  Oxide  of 
manganese,  oxide  and  sulphate  of  zinc,  and  mag- 
nesia, will  produce  a  similar  effect. 

Such  is  boiled-oil  which  was  once  universally 
employed,  but  it  has  many  disadvantages,  and  is 
now  but  little  used  in  painting  carriages  and  rail- 
way cars — for  house  painting  it  is  still  employed 
to  a  large  extent.  Freshly  made  oil  will  not  dry 
so  well  as  old  ;  and  it  is  possible  that  one  or  more 
of  the  foreign  matters  present  retard  the  absorp- 
tion. The  oil  being  purified,  it  is  brought  more 
freely  in  contact  with  oxygen.  In  making  var- 
nish— the  best  quality — linseed  oil  is  purified  of  all 
the  substances  which  go  towards  preventing  the 
absorption  of  oxygen  or  cause  it  to  be  greasy  or 
mucilaginous.  Liebig  devised  a  method  of  remov- 
ing this  latter  impurity  by  precipitating  at  the 
ordinary  temperature,  and  produced  a  superior 
and  less  colored  drying  oil,  by  agitating  it  for 
some  time  with  a  mixture  of  water,  litharge,  and 
sub-acetate  of  lead,  without  the  application  of 
heat. 

In  extracting  linseed  oil,  the  seeds  are  first 
bruised  or  crushed,  then  ground,  and  afterwards 
subjected  to  pressure  in  a  hydraulic  press  or  a 
screw  press,  sometimes  without  heat,  and  some- 
times with  the  aid  of  steam  heat  at  about  200°  F. 
Linseed  oil  is  usually  amber  colored,  but  when 
perfectly  pure  it  is  colorless.  It  has  a  peculiar 
and  rather  disagreeable  odor  and  taste.  That 
made  without  heat  (cold  drawn)  is  purer,  and  less 
apt  to  become  rancid  than  that  in  which  heat  is 


ORANGE. 


227 


applied  in  making-.  By  cold  expression  it  yields 
from  18  to  20  per  cent,  and  with  heat  from  22  to 
27  per  cent,  of  oil. 

Oil  Painting. — Painting"  in  which  the  medium  for 
using-  the  colors  consists  partly  of  oil. 

Oil  of  Spike.— A  volatile  oil,  at  one  time  much  used 
as  a  vehicle  for  paints,  but  owing-  to  its  impurity 
by  adulteration  it  is  now  but  seldom  used. 

Oil  of  Lavender. — An  oil  used  principally  by  enamel- 
ers,  to  whom  it  is  particularly  valuable  from  its 
consistency  being-  such  as  to  prevent  the  colors 
that  are  mixed  with  it  from  running-.  It  drys 
well  and  more  uniformly  than  any  other  oil,  and 
is  excellent  for  artists'  use. 

Oil  of  Poppies. — A  perfectly  colorless  oil,  used  prin- 
cipally in  very  delicate  artists'  work.  Being- very 
fat,  it  is  liable,  unless  very  old,  to  be  insufferably 
long-  in  drying-. 

Oil  of  Turpentine.— (See  Spirits  of  Turpentine.) 

Olive. — The  color  of  the  olive,  made  by  mixing-  green 
and  violet,  or  eig*ht  parts  of  yellow,  one  of  blue, 

and  one  of  black. 

i . 

Olive  Brown. — A  color  formed  of  three  parts  burnt 
umber  and  one  part  of  chrome  yellow. 

Olive  Green. — Similar  to  Quaker  green  (which  see). 

Or-  (Her.) — One  of  the  metals  employed  in  blazon- 
ing-. Gold. 

Orange. — The  color  of  an  orange — a  deep  rich  yellow. 
This  color  having'  a  larg-e  share  of  red  in  its  com- 
position, cannot  be  successfully  used  in  making- 
greens  or  tints  of  light  yellow.    The  principle 


228 


ORANGE  LEAD. 


should  always  be  kept  in  mind — to  use  a  color  or 
pigment,  when  mixing*  colors,  which  contains  the 
least  of  any  objectionable  tint,  as,  for  instance,  in 
making  a  green  color,  we  seek  the  purest  yellow, 
one  which  has  but  little,  if  any,  red  in  its  composi- 
tion, to  add  to  blue  ;  or  in  preparing  an  olive  color 
we  choose  a  reddish  or  orange  yellow  to  add  to 
black. 

Orange  Lead. — The  same  as  orange  mineral. 

Orange  Mineral. — The  same  as  red  lead,  a  pure  ox- 
ide of  lead  ;  produced  by  exposing  metallic  lead  to 
the  action  of  heat,  taking  care  not  to  fuse  it.  It 
is  mostly  employed  as  a  pigment  in  painting  iron 
vessels  and  iron-work  generally.  It  has  an  affini- 
ty for  the  latter  metal,  and  serves  admirably  in 
protecting  it  from  corrosion.  One  description  of 
orange  mineral  is  produced  by  the  slow  calcination 
of  white  lead  in  iron  trays.  This  form  is  not  used 
as  a  pigment. 

Orange  Ochre.— A  bright  yellow  ochre,  burnt, 
which  gives  it  warmth,  color,  transparency  and 
depth.    Called  also  Spanish  ochre. 

Ornament. — That  which  adorns  or  embellishes ;  that 
which  added  to  another  thing  makes  it  more  beau- 
tiful to  the  eye. 

Ornamenting. — The  application  of  ornamental  de- 
signs, heraldic  coats-of-arms,  monograms,  fancy 
stripes,  borders,  etc.  Carriages  are  generally 
finished  with  a  small  ornament,  monogram  or 
cipher  on  the  door  panel,  or  the  centre  of  the  side 
in  buggies,  and  a  short  description  of  such  work 
demands  our  attention. 
First,  The  Tools. — The  smallest  sizes  of  red  sa- 


ORNAMENTING. 


229 


ble  pencils,  bound  in  tin  (see  Pencils),  are  required, a 
r  full  set  of  tube  colors — say  two  dozen — embracing 
all  the  principal  colors,  a  palette,  rest-stick,  small 
bottles  of  oil,  varnish  and  turpentine  (all  of  which 
may  be  found  noticed  under  their  respective 
heads). 

Second,  The  Design. — A  knowledge  of  drawing* 
is  an  indispensable  acquisition  to  one  who  desires 


Fig.  48.— Ornamenter's  Box  of  Tools,  etc. 

to  make  progress  in  this  branch  of  the  art ;  how- 
ever, he  majr  copy  designs  and  in  some  cases  do 
very  well.  To  get  a  working  copy  of  such  orna- 
ments, take  tissue  paper,  or  other  transparent 
paper,  lay  it  over  the  design  and  draw  the  out- 
lines, then,  place  the  drawing  on  to  a  piece  of 
writing  paper,  laid  upon  a  soft  pine  board,  and 
prick  the  lines  with  a  fine  needle,  to  form  a  pounoe 


230 


ORPIMENT. 


pattern.  Then  with  a  little  whiting  tied  up  in,  a 
piece  of  coarse  muslin  to  form  a  pounce  hag*,  lay 
the  pattern  upon  the  place  desired  and  gently  pat 
it  over  with  the  bag*.  A  little  of  the  whiting  will 
pass  through  the  needle-holes  and  thus  distinctly 
mark  the  pattern  upon  the  surface. 

Next,  prepare  the  palette  by  squeezing  out  of 
the  tubes  a  small  quantity  of  each  color  that  is  to 
be  employed,  and  proceed  to  paint  the  ornament. 
It  is  a  good  plan  to  coat  the  whole  figure  inside 
the  outlines,  first  with  quick-drying  light  color, 
then  to  put  in  the  desired  colors  ;  by  that  means 
there  is  no  danger  of  any  portion  of  the  design  be- 
ing obliterated.  Several  pencils  should  be  em- 
ployed, as  it  not  only  injures  the  pencil  to  wash  it 
often  iu  turpentine,  but  clean  colors  cannot  be  so 
easily  made. 

The  general  fashion  now  is  to  put  all  such  or- 
namental designs  "in  relief"  or  monochrome,  all 
one  color  with  its  shades  and  tints. 

Orpi merit. — Commonty  called  Yellow  Arsenic.  It 
is  a  compound  of  fifty-eight  parts  of  arsenic  and 
forty-two  of  sulphur.  It  is  good  in  the  produc- 
tion of  straw  colors,  but  being  exceedingly  hard  to 
grind  is  not  in  common  use. 

Over-C raining. — Sundry  short  markings  iu  lights 
and  shades  dashed  across  the  grain,  or  sprinkled 
in  the  larger  lights  in  pleasing  confusion  ;  and 
certain  mottled  appearances  irregularly  disposed 
throughout  the  grain  are  termed  over-graining, 
which  is,  as  its  name  implies,  the  application  of  a 
graining  color  over  the  grain  already  made  on  the 
wood.  The  over-graining  color  in  general  use  for 
oak  is  made  up  of  Vandyke  brown  ground  up  in 


OVER-GRAINING. 


231 


Fig.  49.— Leather  Graining  Comb, 


Fig.  53.— Steel  Graining-Comb. 


232 


OVER-GRAINING. 


water.  The  method  of  applying  it  is  as  follows  : 
Pour  enough  of  the  water  color  above  mentioned 
on  a  dinner  plate  to  thinly  cover  it,  have  by  the 
side  of  it  a  basin  filled  with  stale  beer;  clip  the 
pencil  over-grainer  in  the  beer,  then  dip  the  tips 
of  the  hairs  into  the  water  color,  and  draw  the 
tips  lightly  from  top  to  bottom  of  the  panel  in 
straight  lines  over  the  combings  ;  then  with  the 
mottler,  and  put  in  the  mottled  appearance  seen 
near  the  broader  veins  and  knots  ;  then  while  the 
color  is  still  wet,  soften  down  all  the  hard  lines 
and  rough  edges  with  the  badger  softener.  Over- 
graining  should  not  be  commenced  until  the 
graining  is  dry  and  hard,  nor  should  it  be  delayed 
longer  than  necessary.  If  this  should  be  unavoid- 
able, the  grain  may  "  ciss  "  at  the  water  color. 
To  prevent  "  cissing  "  go  over  all  the  grain  with 
a  sponge  dipped  in  a  thin  paste  of  whiting  or 
fuller's  earth.  A  few  minutes  spent  at  watching 
a  grainer  at  work  will  be  time  well  spent  in  learn- 
ing the  practical  part  of  the  art.  The  convention- 
al method  of  oak-graining  is  as  follows  :  Apply 
the  graining  color  with  a  pound  brush  to  panel 
and  rails,  with  a  sash  tool,  to  stiles ;  then  go  over 
all  the  color  with  a  coarse  leather  comb  drawn  in 
straight  lines  lengthwise  of  the  intended  grain, 
then  go  over  this  again  with  a  finer  comb,  giving 
a  wav}7  appearance  to  the  grain  by  short  trem- 
blings of  the  hand  and  accidental  slippings  to  right 
or  left ;  then  go  over  some  parts  toward  the  edges 
of  panels,  stiles  and  rails  with  a  fine  steel  comb, 
and  thus  put  in  the  finer  grain  on  those  parts. 
Next  wipe  out  the  graining  color  with  a  view7  to 
produce  a  pretty  effect  in  parts  rather  than  to 
imitate  the  natural  grain  of  the  wood,  putting  in 


Fig.  56.— Comb  for  Dividing  Over-grainer. 


4 


OVER-GRAINING. 


a  curly  knot  here  and  there  in  the  panels  tog-ether 
with  an  occasional  wavy,  or  zigzag  light  across  the 
grain;  then  put  in  a  few  broad  lights  to  imitate 
heart  wood  here  and  there  in  the  rails,  and  tone 
off  to  the  sides.  Wipe  out  only  a  feAv  lights  on 
the  stiles  across  the  grain,  and  thus  leave  the 
appearance  of  the  panels  and  rails  being  framed 
with  a  darker  and  closer  grained  wood,  the  lighter 
and  more  open  grain  being-  seen  on  the  rails.  In 
this  style  of  graining-  the  imagination  of  the  work- 
man conceives  veining-s  and  markings,  such  as 
could  not  possibly  be  found  in  a  well  made  oaken 
door,  some  of  them,  although  of  an  oaken  char- 
acter, taking  the  form  of  grotesque  letters  and 
words.  The  over-graining,  too,  is  frequently  put 
on  to  produce  a  pretty  effect  instead  of  copying 
nature.  But  the  continuation  of  this  article  seems 
superfluous  when  graining  can  be  done  quite  sat- 
isfactorily by  mechanical  means,  as  rollers,  stencil 
plates,  etc.  (See  Graining  Plates.) 
Graining  Plates. — Strong,  thin,  flexible,  and  finery 
tempered  metal  plates,  designed  and  cut  from 
choice,  natural  and  artistic  specimens  from  natural 
wood  into  stencils.  The  surface  of  these  plates 
are  corrugated  by  a  peculiar  process  to  admit  of 
air,  and  prevent  the  wet  rubbed-in  graining  color 
on  the  work  from  being  marred  or  injured  with  the 
plates,  while  being  laid  thereon  to  wipe  out  the 
figures  or  designs  of  the  plates,  which  would 
otherwise  suck  off  the  color  if  not  thus  corrugated. 

Fig.  57  shows  Plate  6  in  actual  use.  Any 
plate  in  set  can  be  thus  slid  along  over  the  wet 
color  in  one  hand,  while  wiping  out  with  wide 
fine  steel  comb  (teeth  lapped  in  a  piece  of  graining 
cloth)  with  the  other  hand.    There  is  no  cloth 


GRAINING  PLATES. 


235 


over  the  comb  shown  in  engraving",  simply  to 
show  the  position  of  the  comb,  which  is  held  almost 
flat  ivhile  wiping  quickly  over  the  plate,  as  the 
plate  moves  slowly  along  in  straight  or  graceful 
curves  over  the  wet  color,  producing  graining  in 
an  almost  endless  and  ever-changing  variety  of 
designs,  and  suitable  for  the  grain  of  almost  any 
wood  desired  to  be  grained,  by  changing  grounds 
and  graining-  colors  to  suit  the  wood  to  be  imitated. 
Sliding*  the  plate  in  the  opposite  direction  makes 
the  graining  work  smaller  and  finer  if  so  desired. 


Fig.  57.— Graining-plate  in  Use. 

The  coarse  steel  comb,  shown  at  A,  is  a  common 
two-inch  comb  that  had  once  nine  teeth  in  all,  but 
every  alternate  tooth  is  purposely  broken  out, 
leaving  but  five  teeth  in  all.  Such  are  easily 
made  from  old  coarse  steel  combs.  In  using,  a 
piece  of  cloth  is  put  over  the  teeth,  which  is  all 
that  is  needed  to  comb  or  continue  out  the  sides  of 
the  heart  work  into  plain  combing  to  any  width  of 
heart  desired.  The  small  pores  or  checks  as  shown 
in  the  work  are  put  in  after  with  the  check  stip- 
pler.  The  entire  work  is  then  well  blended  against 
the  heart  points  or  grain  of  the  hearts,  which  gives 
the  softened  or  feather  edge  to  the  work,  and  is 
thm  completed. 


23G 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


The  engraving  below  shows  a  panel  of  oak 
lights  done  with  Plate  24,  matched  or  joined  edge 
to  edge,  and  also  end  to  end,  which  shows  a  wide 
double  width  finished  panel,  with  all  the  work  in  the 
centre  of  the  panel,  instead  of  just  one  edge,  and 
balance  combed  as  is  usually  done.  With  the 
Oak  Light  plate,  sliding  movement,  as  per  No.  G 
Heart  Plate,  like  sliding  sample  shoivn  in  the 
engraving  below,  the  oak  lights  in  any  of  the 
plates  are  expanded,  enlarged  or  scattered  more 
separate  and  further  apart,  and  making,  if  desired, 
less  than  one-half  the  amount  of  dappled  Avork  ap- 


Fig.  58.— Panel  of  Oak. 


pear  on  the  door,  or  work  to  be  grained,  than  is 
in  the  plate  itself  when  held  steady  and  wiped 
without  sliding  it.  Thus  are  great  and  beautiful 
varieties  obtained,  and  excellent  work  accom- 
plished in  the  most  rapid  and  easy  maimer,  even 
by  the  most  inexperienced  grainer. 

Over-glaze  Painting  on  Porcelain.— The  mite- 
rials  and  appliances  which  the  painter  will  find  it 
necessar3r,  or  at  some  time  or  other  advisable,  to 
use  are  as  follows  : 

1.  Earthenware  or  porcelain  articles,  either 

white  or  of  one  uniform  color. 

2.  Brushes — CameFs-hair  and  sable. 

3.  Medium  or  vehicles. 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


237 


4.  Vitrifiable  pigments  or  enamel  colors. 

5.  Palette  and  receptacle  for  mixed  color. 

6.  Palette  knives,  steel  and  ivory. 

7.  Pieces  of  linen  rag-  free  from  lint. 

8.  A  painting  table. 

9.  Slab  and  muller. 

10.  Pointers  or  scrapers. 

11.  Rest  for  arm  and  hand. 

12.  Horizontal  wheel. 

13.  Easel. 

14.  Burnishers. 

Essentials. — It  is  essential  that  the  articles  num- 
bered from  1  to  8  should  be  sufficiently  represent- 
ed at  the  outset  in  the  beginner's  stock,  the  others 
may  be  obtained  as  the  need  for  them  arises.  It 
will  amply  suffice  to  start  with  a  single  plate  or 
tile,  two  or  three  brushes,  two  mediums,  a  couple 
of  colors,  a  palette,  a  palette-knife,  and  a  piece  of 
rag.  There  is  further  a  great  advantage  in  hav- 
ing a  limited  stock  in  hand,  for  the  beginner  is 
thereby  saved  the  temptation,  too  often  irresist- 
ible, to  enter  upon  work  for  which  he  is  not  yet 
qualified. 

Ware. — Earthenware,  as  a  class,  is  softer  than 
porcelain,  and  will  not  in  general  stand  the  re- 
peated firings  required  by  elaborate  work,  and  for 
such  work  the  best  and  most  perfect  porcelain 
procurable  will  not  be  too  good. 

Tiles. — The  most  serviceable  articles  to  practice  upon 
are  the  thick  earthenware  tiles  glazed  on  one  side, 
and  these  are  at  the  same  time  most  generally  ob- 
tainable, and  from  their  fair  quality,  good  glaze, 
and  extreme  cheapness,  most  acceptable.  They  are 
ordinarily  made  square  in  sizes  from  four  inches  up- 


238 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


wards.  These  square  tiles  are  best  adapted  for 
stoves  and  mantle-pieces,  or  for  walls,  the  paint- 
ing- on  each  tile  either  being-  a  design  complete  in 
itself  or  forming  part  of  a  large  picture. 

Plaques  of  Slabs.— There  are  also  thin,  oblong,  or 
square,  or  round,  or  oval  slabs  or  plaques  glazed 
on  one  of  the  sides  or  on  both.  These  are  finer  and 
more  suited  for  inlaying  in  cabinets,  sideboards, 
thick  book  covers,  such  as  the  covers  of  albums  or 
of  books  for,  say,  a  collection  of  photographs  of 
choice  works  of  art,  and  generally  where  compar- 
ative lightness  is  an  object.  For  practice,  tiles 
that  are  glazed  on  both  sides  are  particularly  ser- 
viceable, as  they  may  be  painted  on  both  sides. 

Dishes  and  Plates.— These  may  be  had  in  all  sizes, 
and  either  round  or  oval.  The  plates  may  be  had 
in  flat,  convex  and  concave  shapes,  and  the  oval 
ones  are  rather  better  for  landscapes,  etc. 

Defects. — The  ware  must  be  free  from  defects  of 
all  kinds,  even  ware  having  the  glaze  scratched 
should  be  avoided. 

Brushes. — The  brushes  will  be  made  of  either 
camel's-hair  or  sable,  and  we  illustrate  those  which 
will  fill  every  requirement.  Whatever  kind  may  be 
selected  the  best  only  of  that  kind  should  be  used. 
It  is  impossible  to  produce  a  highly-finished  work 
with  bad  tools.  In  a  good  brush,  when  dry,  the 
body  is  perfectly  elastic,  and  the  hairs  have  a  per- 
fect spring  and  lie  equally  together. 

A  brush  should  not  be  purchased  without  being 
tested.  Always  test  your  brushes  in  cold  water, 
never  by  drawing  them  between  the  lips  and  wet- 
ting them  with  spittle,  for  the  warm  spittle  inva- 
riably crinkles  the  hairs  and  ruins  the  brush.  If 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


239 


the  seller  will  not  proffer  a  giass  of  water,  ask  for 
it,  and  if  not  produced  do  not  buy.  The  water 
forthcoming-,  dip  the  hairs  in  it  so  that  they  be- 
come fully  charg-ed.  Then  holding-  the  handle 
tig-htly  between  the  ends  of  the  thumb  and  second 
fing-er,  suddenly  depress  the  latter,  retaining-  the 


Fig.  59.— Design  for  Painting  on  Porcelain. 


brush  between  the  thumb  and  first  fing-er.  This 
jerk  will  send  off  the  superfluous  water,  and  then 
the  brush,  if  g-ood,  will  at  its  end  present,  if  a 
round  or  small  flat  one,  a  fine  point ;  if  a  large  flat 
one,  a  fine,  straight,  or  slig-htly  curved  line,  to 
which  in  either  case  the  body  has  regularly  de- 


240 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


creased.  If  a  round  brush  snould,  after  this  test, 
have  protruding-  hairs  in  the  body,  or  free  hairs  at 
the  end,  or  a  flat  one  have  some  parts  of  its  line 
thicker  than  others  or  depressed,  or  the  termin- 
ating point  or  line  be  not  led  up  gradually,  reject 


Fig.  60.— Design  for  Painting  on  Porcelain. 


it,  without  further  consideration — it  is  not  a  good 
brush. 

Skies,  Water,  and  Grounding.— For  skies  and 
water  in  which  there  is  a  pretty  large  sheet  of  col- 
or, either  of  one  intensity  or  graduated,  and  to  be 
left  as  laid,  or  to  have  the  clouds  or  lights  picked 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


241 


out,  a  flat  brush,  as  shown  in  Fig".  64,  is  generally 
best ;  but  in  smaller  or  somewhat  irregular  work, 
that  shown  in  Fig".  65,  which  is  often  called  a  sky- 
brush,  is  perhaps  most  serviceable.  The  size 
should  be  such  as  to  allow  of  enough  paint  being 


Fig.  61.      Fig.  62.      Fig.  63.         Fig.  64.         Fig.  65. 


Fig.  61.— Flat  Short  Sable.  Fig.  62.— Round  Ordinary 
Sable.  Fig.  63.— For  Lining  or  Tracing.  Figs.  64,  65.— 
Water  or  Sky,  Washing  in  or  Grounding  Colors. 


taken  up  to  give  a  complete  line  of  full  width. 
Fig.  65  is  also  well  suited  for  washing  in  large 


242 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


masses  of  foliage.  Either  brush  answers  well  for 
back-grounds  or  ground -laying*. 

For  General  Use. — The  brushes  or  pencils  depict- 
ed in  Figs.  61,  62,  66  to  69,  and  77,  will  be  found 
serviceable,  the  sizes  varying  according  to  the 
size  of  the  work  in  hand.  Fig.  66,  an  extremely 
fine  sable,  is  for  the  most  delicate  work  in  the 


Fig.  66.    Fig.  67.   Fig.  68.         Fig.  69. 

Fig.  66.— 00  Miniature  Sable.  Fig.  67.— Small  Finisher, 
Camel-hair.  Fig.  68.— Small  Rose,  Camel-hair.  Fig. 
69. — Large  Shader. 


features  of  small  faces,  such  as  nostrils,  lips, 
the  iris,  etc. ;  Figs.  67,  68,  and  77,  in  quills,  are 
specially  made  for  this  work.  Fig.  69,  and  a 
size  or  two  smaller  than  that  represented,  are 
useful  in  large  shading,  such  as  broad  drap- 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


243 


eries  in  big-  painting's,  and  in  foregrounds.  Fig. 
61  is  a  short,  flat  sable,  highly  used  in  giving 
crisp  touches  with  paint  rather  stiffer  than  usual. 
Fig.  62  is  an  ordinary  round  sable.  Both  of  these 
last  are  in  metal  settings.  With  regard  to  the 
difference  between  round  and  flat  brushes,  it 


Fig.  70.       Fig.  71.  Fig.  72.  Fig.  73. 


Fig.  70.— Bander.,  Fig.  71.— Softener.    Fig.  72.— Dabber, 
Flat  Top.    Fig.  73.— Dabber,  Skew  Top. 

may  be  stated  that  the  latter  are  often  a  little 
more  useful  in  a  skilled  hand,  as  a  greater  variety 
of  stroke  and  touch  can  be  given  with  them.  Both 


244 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


sable  and  camel's-hair  may  "be  obtained  in  quills 
or  set  in  metal  or  albata. 

Liners,  Tracers  and  Banders. — Fig-.  63  represents 
a  brush  known  as  a  liner.  This  has  very  long 
hair,  and  is  a  fine  and  very  supple  brush,  capable 
of  holding,  for  its  diameter,  a  very  large  quantity 
of  paint.  It  is  used  for  drawing  circular  lines 
round  plates  or  vases,  and  may  be  had  in  three  or 
four  sizes.    Fig.  70  also  comes  into  use  in  circular 


Fig.  74.      Fig.  75.  Fig.  76.         Fig.  77. 


Figs.  74,  75.— Superfine  Fitch-hair  Brushes.    Fig.  76.— 
Softener.    Fig.  77.— Special  Rose,  Camel-hair. 


work,  and  with  it  bands  of  color  are  described. 
The  possession  of  it  is  not,  however,  an  absolute 
necessity,  as  with  experience  a  large  liner  can  be 
made  to  do  its  work. 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


245 


Dabbers. — The  foregoing-  are  brushes  used  in  actu- 
ally laying  the  paint  on  the  ware.  There  are 
others  required  for  distributing  it  ivhen  such  an 
operation  is  necessary.  These  are  fitch  brushes 
or  dabbers  and  softeners  (see  Figs.  71  to  75).  The 
former  are  employed  to  render  even  a  coat  of 
paint  which  is  perhaps  impossible,  owing  to  irreg- 
ularities in  the  surface  of  the  ware  or  from  some 
other  cause,  to  lay  quite  flat  with  the  painting. 

Softeners  are  brushes  with  very  fine  and  soft  hair, 
and  are  used  in  softening  tints  and  rendering 
them  more  delicate,  and  for  toning  down  the  edges 
of  clouds  are  excellent. 

All  brushes  should  be  well  rinsed  in  turpentine 
after  use,  and  before  the  paint  has  time  to  dry  in 
among  the  hairs.  Spirits  of  wine,  which  is  some- 
times recommended  for  cleaning  brushes,  should 
never  under  any  circumstances  be  used. 

Mediums. — These  are  requisites,  and  upon  the  kind 
used  and  upon  their  quality  depends,  to  an  extent 
greater  than  is  generally  supposed,  the  appear- 
ance of  the  finished  work.  The  mediums  are,  as 
their  other  general  name  of  vehicles  indicates,  the 
carriers  of  the  paint,  the  means  by  which  it  may 
be  spread.  The  mediums  in  general  use  and  which 
give  every  satisfaction  are  of  two  kinds — a  spirit 
and  an  oil ;  the  latter  being  the  vehicle  proper,  the 
former,  the  thinning  agent  to  render  practicable 
the  spreading  of  the  mixed  oil  and  paint  in  a  coat 
of  any  desired  depth  or  thickness.  The  spirit  and 
the  oil  are  both  either  of  turpentine  or  of  tar — 
spirit  and  oil  of  turpentine  being  used  together, 
and  spirit  and  oil  of  tar. 

Turpentine. — The  ordinary  turpentine  of  the  house- 
painter  will  answer  the  purpose,  but  it  will  be 


246 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


Fig.  78.— The  Rose.   Design  for  Porcelain  Painting. 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


247 


found  best  to  procure  rectified  spirits  of  turpentine 
as  sold  by  the  drug-gist,  which  is  as  clear  as  the  pro- 
verbial crystal,  and  as  limpid  as  the  purest  water. 
The  common  turpentine  may  be  used  for  washing- 
brushes.  The  oil  of  turpentine  is  also  known  as 
fat  oil.  It  is  viscid,  much  of  the  consistency  of 
golden  syrup,  and  has  something  of  the  color  of 
clouded  amber.  This  may  be  purchased  for  a  few 
cents  a  small  bottle,  but  it  may  be  prepared  from 
spirits  of  turpentine  by  any  one,  thus  :  Into  a  flat 
saucer  pour  a  little  spirits  of  turpentine,  say  a 
tablespoonful,  according  to  the  size'of  the  saucer, 
and  over  the  saucer  place  a  layer  of  muslin,  suffi- 
ciently close  in  texture  to  prevent  dust  getting  to 
the  turpentine,  and  yet  not  so  close  as  to  prevent 
evaporation.  The  saucer  with  the  muslin  drawn 
tight  over  it  should  now  be  put  in  a  place  where 
evaporation  will  be  free,  but  not  over  the  fire  or 
stove  so  as  to  hasten  evaporation,  or  the  heat 
might  dissipate  the  whole.  When  the  spirituous 
part  of  the  liquid  has  passed  off  there  will  be  found 
left  the  oil  at  the  bottom  of  the  saucer.  Fresh 
spirit  may  be  added,  and  the  process  repeated  un- 
till  there  is  enough  oil  to  pour  off. 

Tar. — The  spirit  of  tar  is  in  two  shades — one  a  rich 
amber,  the  other  a  dark  brown,  but  both  are  alike 
in  nature.  The  oil  of  tar  corresponds  to  it  in  the 
same  way  as  the  oil  of  turpentine  does  to  the  spirit 
of  turpentine.    The  spirits  of  oil  of  tar  are  of  simi- 

t  lar  use  to  the  other  spirit  and  oil,  and  are  employ- 
ed principally  by  those  who  object  to  the  vapor  of 
the  turpentine  as  causing  headache  or  affecting- 
the  throat.  The  spirits  of  turpentine  and  of  tar 
are  extremely  volatile,  the  former  being-  somewhat 
more  so  than  the  latter  ;  and  during  the  working-, 


248 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


sufficient  may  pass  off  to  render  the  paint  some- 
what troublesome  to  deal  with.  This  difficulty 
is,  however,  only  a  slight  one,  and  is  easily  over- 
come by  the  use  of  a  little 

Oil  of  Lavender,  or  oil  of  spike,  as  it  is  sometimes 
called.  This  is  a  perfectly  volatile  and  fluid  oil,  but 
very  much  less  volatile  than  either  of  the  above 
mentioned  spirits,  and  a  small  quantity  is  added 
to  the  other  mediums  used  when  it  is  desired  to 
keep  the  work  open,  that  is — to  counteract  its  dry- 
ing or  fattening-  through  loss  of  spirit. 

The  Mediums  should  be  kept  in  bottles  with 
closely  fitting-  stoppers,  especially  the  spirits,  as 
otherwise  these  would  quickly  become  "fat"  by 
evaporation . 

Paint. — The  colors  used  in  painting-  upon  china  or 
earthenware  are,  for  the  most  part,  oxides  of  cer- 
tain metals.  A  few  colors,  however,  such  as  the 
deep  transparent  blues,  and  yellows  from  one 
source,  are  really,  to  a  certain  extent,  stained 
glass,  the  glass  having-  more  or  less  completely 
dissolved  the  coloring-  matter.  China  or  enamel 
colors  then,  from  their  containing-,  as  an  essential 
constituent,  a  glass  or  flux  of  vitrifiable  composi- 
tion, are  called  vitrifiable  pigments. 

Complete  Palette. — The  following-  list  of  colors  in 
dry  powder  will  serve  our  purpose  : 


BLACK. 


BLUE. 

Old  Tile. 


Soft. 
Deep. 


Turquoise  Outremer. 
Soft. 

Schwartzenburgh. 


BLUE. 


Azure. 


Deep. 


Fig.  79.— The  Crocus.   Design  for  Porcelain  Painting. 


250 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


-t>Xv \J  VV  IN  • 

ORANGE. 

xtLLio  Li  let  LI, 

uaiK, 

-L> I  LlIloWlUJv* 

Ijlgllt. 

Ohpst/niit. 

Opaque. 

Strong  Deep. 

PURPLE. 

VJt/1  I  1 1  till. 

Ordinary. 

V  J  \  *  ' _  LI  • 

ixoyai. 

Ol  i  uo 
Wll  VtJ. 

Kuby  d  Or. 

Sepia. 

RED. 

V  cUlUVKc. 

.fclesn,  Nos.  1  and  2. 

' '  Shadow. 

•Pin  i*m  inp 

Ordinary. 

Pink. 

Rose*  Oora.l 

ocai  lei. 

J-/LIXJ1II I  J'* 

SILVER. 

"  Ordinary, 

Prepared. 

Dti  ong. 

VIOLET. 

nu  A  V 
VjrlviA.  x  • 

ljiiac,  i,  4)  ana  o. 

J3J  acK. 

Mauve. 

jr  ean. 

v  io  let. 

VV  lULtJ  OlJclUOW. 

w  jtiirji. 

1  >  K  1  .  1  ..N  . 

X  I  cl  I  U. 

Celadon. 

Medium. 

<<  "PTqv/1 

SUvft 
OOlt. 

Deep. 

Dover. 

"Ruff 

x>un. 

Emerald. 

Ivory. 

Gordon. 

T  irrhf 

L/ignt. 

Onnmip 

Sevres. 

Persian. 

"  Light. 

"  Hard. 

Shading. 

Moist  Oil-Colors. — These,  as  well  as  moist  ivater- 
colors  prepared  expressly  for  this  kind  of  painting, 
can  be  purchased  at  most  any  large  city  paint- 
dealer's  store. 


Processes. — Having  all  the  general  requisites  at 
hand  we  are  ready  to  begin  work.    Before,  how- 


Fig.  80.— The  Primrose.   Design  for  Porcelain  Painting. 


252 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


ever,  we  bring-  out  our  brushes  and  mix  our  colors, 
we  must  decide  wfc^e  the  color  is  to  go  when  it  is 
mixed.  The  first  concern  is  the  design,  and  this 
whether  we  intend  to  have  a  background  or  not. 
Therefore,  our  first  operations  will  be  directed 
toward  producing' 
The  Outline. — Material. — According  to  the  method 
which  may  be  adopted  for  sketching-  the  outline, 
there  will  be  required  a  black  lead-pencil^  HB  or  B, 
lithographic  crayon,  a  tracing  point,  tracing  paper, 
transfer  paper,  a  pounce,  Indian  ink,  rose  pink,  or 
lamp-black,  and  gummed  paper  or  modelling  wax. 

Lithographic  crayon  may  be  made  by  mixing  32 
parts  bees-wax,  4  parts  purified  tallow,  24  parts 
soap,  1  part  nitrate  of  potassium,  dissolved  in  8 
parts  water,  6  parts  lamp-black. 

The  surface  of  the  ware  having  been  thorough- 
ly cleaned  by  washing,  and  dried,  the  design  may 
be  marked  on  by  either  of  the  following  plans : 
1,  By  marking  with  lithographic  crayon;  2, 
black  lead-pencil ;  3,  pricked  stencil  pattern  and 
pounce-bag ;  4,  copying  or  transfer  paper.  The 
design  being  drawn  on  the  ware  we  proceed  to 
mix  the  color  with  the  mediums.  Different  pig- 
ments require  different  proportions  of  medium, 
and  the  same  pigment  requires  varying  propor- 
tions, according  to  the  end  sought.  It  may  be 
said  generally  that  the  ordinary  blues,  rose,  and 
purple  take  most  "  fat  "  and  the  yellows  the  least. 
More  fat,  again,  is  required  when  it  is  desired  to 
lay  color  flat,  as  in  backgrounds,  either  with  the 
brush,  or  when  the  use  of  the  dabber  is  contem- 
plated ;  or  to  have  the  color  flow  to  a  very  slight 
extent  as  in  delicate  shading ;  or  to  lay  a  very 
thin  tint. 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


253 


General  Rule  for  Oil  and  Spirit. — Powder 
Color:  In  mixing"  powder  color,  the  orthodox 
direction  is  to  lay  a  little  powder  on  the  slab,  and 
add  to  it  just  so  much  oil  as  will  make  it  into  a 
thick  paste,  to  be  subsequently  reduced  to  the 
requisite  thinness  by  spirit.  The  grinding-  is  done 
on  the  slab  with  the  muller,  and  when  ground  to 
a  thick  cream  consistency  it  is  called  prepared 
color. 

Moist  Oil-Color. — Those  who  adopt  moist  oil-color 
in  tubes,  will  find  that  the  color  when  fresh, 
contains  exactly  the  right  quantity  of  oil.  The 
color  only  requires  thinning-  to  be  fit  for  use. 

Moist  Water-Colors. — Require  no  grinding*,  sim- 
ply dilution,  but  it  must  be  remembered  water- 
colors  cannot  be  used  where  the  outlines  are 
made  with  lithographic  crayons,  for  these  being 
greasy  would  grease  the  brush,  and  the  water- 
color  instead  of  laying  flat,  would  ridge  and  spot. 

Firing. — The  ware  being  painted  the  next  step  is  to 
make  the  work  imperishable  by  fire  ;  and  this 
part  of  the  process  need  not  be  done  by  the  ama- 
teur or  the  painter,  for  the  maintenance  to  a 
nicety  of  different  definite  degrees  of  heat  in 
furnaces  of  special  adaptation  are  not  to  be  found 
united  except  in  factories  devoted  to  the  business. 
It  is  not  surprising  to  find  it  assumed  in  some 
books  on  the  subject  that  the  work  has  been 
successful,  and  gone  bravely  through  its  fiery 
ordeal.  Such  a  result  is  of  course  gratifying,  but 
it  is  not  always  forthcoming.  If  the  painting  has 
gone  to  the  kiln  with  too  much  oil  in  it,  it  is 
certain  that  the  color  will  blister.  If  it  comes 
back  with  a  dry  powdery  look,  with  the  color 


4 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


scarcely  adhering,  it  shows  that  the  color  was 
over-diluted  with  turpentine. 

The  remedy  for  dryness  is  simply  repainting-, 
using-  more  oil.  The  reined}7"  for  blistering  is 
simply  chipping  off  the  blisters,  and  then  rubbing 
down  the  irregularities. 


Fig.  81.— Lilies  of  the  Valley,  Forget-Me-Not,  and 
Pelargonium. 


We  give  a  few  hints  on  the  painting  of 
monochrome  (one  color)  work,  and  a  study  of 
lilies  of  the  valley,  forget-me-not,  and  pelargo- 
nium. 

Painting  the  Leaves. — The  lily  leaves  will  be  done 


OVER-GLAZE  PAINTING. 


255 


with  full  strokes  of  the  brush,  well  filled.  The 
strokes  should  be  taken  from  point  to  stem,  ob- 
serving the  central  line  and  the  curve  of  the 
edges.  In  this  case,  the  lines  of  the  leaf  are  to  be 
left  by  the  brush  marks,  sc  there  is  no  process  to 
be  observed  for  producing*  a  flat  tint,  which  would 
be  absurd.  The  flowers  will  be  painted  over.  If 
the  outline  has  been  properly  done  and  dried,  it 
will  rub  up  in  the  painting,  and  will  show  through 
sufficiently.  In  doing  the  pelargonium  leaf,  no 
care  need  be  taken  to  keep  within  the  crenated 
edge  or  the  part  touching  the  flower.  Paint 
freely  and  before  the  paint  is  dry,  remove  what 
lies  beyond  the  edge  with  a  piece  of  rag,  which 
may  or  may  not  be  dampened  with  spirits  of 
turpentine.  This  removal  must  be  effected  from 
the  edge  outward,  and  not  along  the  edge,  as 
this  would  leave  a  fine  line  of  deeper  tint.  In 
this  leaf  there  are  light  veins.  These  may  be 
made  out  in  two  ways.  First,  the  leaf  may 
have  a  light  coat  first,  then,  with  a  stick 
point,  take  off  the  paint  right  down  to  the  ware, 
which  shows  up  its  glaze,  and  then,  when  this 
first  coat  is  dry,  go  over  the  whole  again  with 
the  tint  or  tints  proper  to  give  the  required 
depths,  covering  the  lines  first  taken  out.  Second, 
the  veins  may  be  gone  over  with  a  fine  brush,  just 
dampened,  not  wet,  with  spirit.  This  lightens  the 
first-laid  coat  exactly  on  the  lines  of  the  veins, 
but  it  requires  more  care  than  the  other  way. 
The  forget-me-not  leaves  are  simple,  and  take  the 
plain  brush  stroke. 
The  Flowers. — Those  of  the  lily  and  forget-me-not 
over  the  leaves  are  to  be  taken  out.  This  may  be 
done  with  a  rag  while  the  paint  is  moist,  or  with 


256 


PAINT. 


a  scraper  after  it  has  dried.  The  former  operation 
is  the  easier.  The  lights  of  the  lily  flowers  will  be 
the  white  glaze  of  the  ware  unpainted.  In  paint- 
ing the  shadows  on  these  flowers,  a  little  extra 
fat  will  be  advisable,  and  the  shadows  must  be 
very  delicate  and  well-toned.  The  greatest  care 
must  be  taken  so  to  tone  as  to  preserve  the  round- 
ness of  the  flower.  The  pelargonium  petals  have 
a  decided  tint  which,  on  the  plain  ones,  covers  only 
half  the  petal — the  half  next  the  edge.  The  re- 
mainder is  very  faint,  the  faintest  next  the  throat. 
This  effect  may  easily  be  produced  thus — paint  the 
well-toned  half,  then  with  a  dry  brush  carry  the 
coloring  from  the  inner  edge  of  that  half  down  to 
the  centre.  The  color  must  be  a  little  oily  for  this, 
and  a  dry  brush  will  spread  enough  color.  The 
forget-me-not  petals  will  have,  for  the  most  part, 
flattish  tints,  and  only  require  a  little  careful  treat- 
ment. Do  not  overload  the  brush  with  color.  If 
too  much  color  has  been  used  it  may  easily  be  re- 
moved with  a  rag,  but  care  must  be  taken  to  do 
this  gently,  so  as  not  to  raise  the  outline. 

The  tile,  when  dry,  may  be  sent  to  be  fired,  and 
if  the  foregoing  directions  have  been  successfully 
followed,  the  painting  will  return  ready  for  fram- 
ing. 

Paint,  in  view  of  utility,  is  employed  as  a  protect- 
ive covering  to  a  body  against  the  injurious  influ- 
ences of  the  air,  water,  and  other  destructive 
agencies.  Wood  and  common  metals  are  especial- 
ly attacked  by  oxygen  contained  in  the  atmosphere, 
of  which  it  constitutes  about  21  per  cent,  being 
the  TVo-  part  of  the  whole  atmosphere.  It  is  also 
a  component  part  of  water,  forming  nearly 
of  its  whole  weight.    Although  its  presence  is  ab- 


PAINT. 


257 


solutely  necessary  to  the  continuance  of  animal 
life,  yet  metals  exposed  to  the  air  are  consumed 
by  the  oxygen  as  if  in  a  fire.  The  utility,  therefore, 
of  paint  a  sa  protector  is  so  apparent  that  any 
study  of  its  composition  and  properties,  which  will 
tend  to  improve  it  in  any  degree,  is  of  great  im- 
portance. 

Paint  is  understood  to  he  a  mixture  of  a  liquid 
and  a  solid  in  powder.  The  desirable  physical 
conditions  of  these  are  that  the  liquid  should  have 
a  certain  amount  of  viscidity  in  order  to  maintain 
the  powder  in  suspension,  and  that  the  powder 
should  be  as  fine  as  possible,  and  nearly  of  the 
same  specific  gravity  as  the  liquid.  Linseed  oil  is 
undoubtedly  the  best  mixture  for  paints  that  are 
to  be  exposed  to  the  weather,  unprotected  by  var- 
nish. It  absorbs  oxygen  and  becomes  solid  and 
waterproof,  and  yet  it  always  possesses  some  elas- 
ticity which  prevents  it  from  cracking.  Theory 
and  the  almost  united  voice  of  practical  painters, 
after  centuries  of  experience,  have  decided  that,  in 
view  of  its  inherent  properties  and  its  cost,  nothing 
at  present  known  can  take  its  place.  There  may 
be  special  uses  of  paint  where  some  other  article 
may  be  substituted  with  advantage,  yet  we  can- 
not reasonably  look  beyond  the  class  of  substances 
known  as  drying  oils  for  a  substitute.  Volatile 
oils,  such  as  resin  oils,  which  oxydize  into  brit- 
tle resins,  are  altogether  out  of  the  question. 
Nor  will  any  solution  of  India-rubber  or  gutta-per- 
cha take  the  place  of  linseed  oil,  by  reason  of  ex- 
pense as  well  as  their  inferior  properties.  Linseed 
oil,  therefore,  is  the  very  best  liquid  for  paint. 
Paint  which  is  to  be  used  for  the  coloring,  only,  of 
carriage  panels  or  gears,  need  not  to  be  made  dura- 


258 


PAINT. 


ble  by  oil  in  the  paint,  for  the  several  coatings  of 
varnish — of  which  oil  is  the  principal  constituent — 
renders  the  work  as  durable  as  desired  to  be,  tak- 
ing- into  consideration  the  time  to  be  spent  upon 
such  work.  The  composition  of  paint  is  varied, 
according-  to  the  purpose  to  which  it  is  put. 
White  House-paint  may  be  made  as  follows  :  Two 
quarts  of  skim-milk,  8  ounces  of  fresh  slaked  lime, 
G  ounces  of  linseed  oil,  2  ounces  of  white  Burgundy 
pitch,  and  3  pounds  of  Spanish  white.  The  lime 
must  be  slaked  in  water,  exposed  to  the  air, 
mixed  in  about  one-quarter  of  the  milk ;  the  oil  in 
which  the  pitch  is  previously  dissolved  must  be 
added  gradually,  then  the  rest  of  the  milk,  and 
afterwards  the  Spanish  white.  This  quantity  is 
sufficient  for  27  square  yards,  and  the  cost  is 
trifling-. 

To  make  a  cheap  paint  impervious  to  the 
weather :  Dissolve  eight  pounds  of  glue  (commi- 
nuted or  ground  glue  is  best)  in  boiling  water,  and 
with  this  slake  a  bushel  of  quicklime  until  it  be- 
comes of  the  usual  consistence  of  paint.  Lay  on 
three  coats  of  this  mixture  with  a  paint  brush, 
taking  care  that  each  coat  is  dry  before  another  is 
applied  ;  over  the  third  coat — before  it  is  dry — 
dust  sand  or  gray-stone  dust  from  a  dredger.  By 
mixing  a  colored  pigment  with  this  paint  any 
color  may  be  had.  A  substitute  for  oil  paint  is 
made  by  pouring  a  gallon  of  boiling  water  upon  a 
pound  of  quicklime  and  two  ounces  of  sugar-of- 
lead.  When  the  lime  has  become  completely 
slaked,  the  mixture  is  to  be  stirred,  and  it  is  then 
fit  for  use.  Coloring  ingredients  may  be  added  if 
desired. 

The  outside  of  houses  should  be  painted  during 


PAINT. 


250 


autumn  or  winter.  Hot  weather  injures  the  paint 
by  driving  the  oil  into  the  wood,  causing  the  pig- 
ment to  become  dry  and  crumbling,  but  when  it  is 
laid  on  in  colder  weather  it  hardens  upon  the  sur- 
face and  is  far  more  durable. 

Paint  Cup. — A  vessel  for  holding  paint,  generally  of 
tin  and  containing  one  pint.  Those  vessels  which 
are  used  by  the  house-painter  are  called  paint- 
tubs,  pots,  or  buckets. 

Paint-Mill. — A  mill  used  for  grinding  paints.  The 
most  popular  paint-mill  for  shop  use  is  that  known 
as  the  "  Harris  mill,"  but  the  advent  of  ready- 
prepared  paints  has  caused  a  partial  disuse  of  this 
once  useful  implement.  Many  prepared  colors 
are  ground  to  a  fine  degree  in  mills  through  which 
a  stream  of  cold  water  passes  to  prevent  the  heat- 
ing of  the  bearing  surfaces.  These  mills  turn  out 
the  paint  as  near  perfection  as  can  be,  and  quite 
rapidly. 

Paint  Mixed  with  Petroleum. — Petroleum  pene- 
trates wood  and  excludes  air  and  moisture  by  fill- 
ing the  pores.  Old  buildings  may  be  much  improv- 
ed by  a  coat  of  crude  petroleum  and  pigment 
(any  color)  put  on  with  unsparing  hand  with  a 
whitewash  brush,  for  the  greater  the  amount  put 
on  within  reason,  the  better.  The  pure  oil  with- 
out coloring  is  excellent  for  the  preservation  of 
sills  and  timbers  of  a  barn  or  outbuilding. 

Paint,  to  Reduce  with  Water.— Mix  gum  shellac, 
1  pound ;  sal  soda,  \  pound ;  water  sufficient  to 
cover ;  boil  all  together  till  dissolved  ;  when  cool 
bottle  for  use.  Then  to  a  quart  of  oil  paint  mixed 
as  usual  add  \  pint  of  the  shellac  mixture,  which 


260 


PAINT-STONE . 


will  thicken  it,  and  water  may  be  added  to  thin 
to  a  working*  consistency. 

Paint  Stone. — A  flat  stone  or  slab  of  marble  on 
which  colors  are  mixed  or  ground.  The  slab 
should  be  at  least  two  inches  thick,  to  ensure 
against  breaking  when  crushing  hard  pigments 
or  pounding  putty  to  a  stiff  dough.  A  plate  of 
glass  fastened  to  a  board  with  putty  or  thick 
paint,  forms  an  excellent  ''paint  stone." 

Paint  Skins. — The  skins  that  dry  upon  the  top  of 
paint  left  standing  for  any  length  of  time  may  be 
made  fit  for  use  again  by  simpty  soaking  them 
in  strong  sal  soda  water  for  a  few  days,  then 
mixing  with  oil  and  straining. 

Painters'  Colic.— A  disease  to  which  painters  more 
than  any  other  class  of  men  are  subject.  It  is 
caused  by  the  presence  of  lead  in  the  system, 
absorbed  through  the  skin  by  contact  with  paints 
containing  that  metal,  especially  those  known  as 
white  and  red  lead.  The  disease  is  considered 
serious,  being,  usually,  a  mild  form  of  paralysis 
(see  Lead  Poisoning). 

Painters'  Cream. — A  composition  used  by  artists 
to  cover  oil  paintings  in  progress,  when  they 
leave  off  their  work  ;  it  prevents  drying  and  con- 
sequent showing  of  lines  where  new  work  is 
begun.  It  consists  of  six  parts  of  fine  nut  oil  and 
one  part  of  gum  mastic.  The  mastic  is  dissolved 
in  the  oil,  and  then  is  added  a  quarter  part  of 
acetate,  or  sugar  of  lead.  When  well  incorporat- 
ed with  the  dissolved  mastic,  water  must  be  add- 
.  ed  and  thoroughly  mixed  until  the  whole  has 
the  consistency  of  cream.    It  is  applied  with  a 


PAINTING. 


261 


soft  brush  and  is  easily  removed  with  water  and 
a  sponge. 

Painters'  Stand. — A  bench  on  which  the  painter, 
when  varnishing',  places  his  cups  and  brushes. 
The  brushes,  of  which  he  uses  several  when 
varnishing  a  heavy  body,  are  rested  by  inserting 
the  point  of  the  handle  in  holes  bored  through  the 
upright  back,  as  shown  in  the  cut;  this  prevents 


Fig.  82.— Painter's  Stand. 


the  bristles  or  hairs  from  coming  in  contact  with 
any  substance  which  might  leave  lint  or  dust 
upon  them.  A  drawer  is  fitted  to  the  stand  in 
which  he  may  keep  "pickers  "  and  such  like  aids 
to  his  work.  The  stand  is  made  of  pine  wood  so 
as  to  be  light,  and  easily  moved  from  place  to 
place  around  the  room. 
Painting. — The  art  of  representing  objects  to  the  eye 
on  a  flat  surface,  by  means  of  lines  and  color, 


262 


PAINTING. 


with  a  view  to  convey  ideas  and  awaken  emotions. 
It  is  done  by  means  of  light,  shade,  and  color. 
Also  the  application  of  a  mixture  of  pigment  and 
a  medium  or  vehicle  to  any  surface,  for  the  pur- 
pose of  preserving  or  beautifying-  it.  Also,  the 
act  of  working"  with  paints,  etc. 

In  the  compilation  of  this  book  it  was  not  in- 
tended to  enter  the  field  of  fine  arts  any  more  than 
could  possibly  be  avoided,  and  our  attention  was 
given  more  particularly  to  the  useful  arts,  of 
which  the  painting-  of  carriages,  houses,  etc.,  be- 
longs, but  it  will  not  be  amiss,  now  that  Ave  find 
ourselves  so  closely  allied  to  fine  art  to  give  a  brief 
description  of  the  various  branches  of  work  com- 
ing under  the  head  of  fine  art  painting.  It  is  but 
a  few  years  since  the  principal  modes  of  painting 
could  be  counted  upon  the  finger  ends,  while  now 
we  find  the  number  legion.  Water-color,  crayon, 
miniature,  oil  painting,  encaustic,  fresco,  etydoric, 
enamel,  glass  painting,  etc. 

Water-Color. — Sometimes  called  limning,  in  which 
style  the  colors  are  prepared  with  gum  or  size,  and 
applied  with  water.  The  characteristics  are  clear- 
ness and  transparency  of  tint. 

Crayon.— In  which  the  colors  are  ground  in  gum 
and  water,  and  formed  into  small  cylinders. 
When  skilfully  used,  they  give  a  soft  and  pleasing 
effect. 

Miniature. — Small  portraits  on  ivor}T  or  vellum. 
Water-colors  are  used  in  this  style ;  the  colors  are 
applied  in  minute  dots,  which  gives  great  softness 
to  the  gradations  of  tint. 

Oil  Painting. — Colors  ground  in  oils  are  not  only 
more  enduring  but  more  forcible  in  their  effects. 


PAINTING. 


263 


Fresco. — The  colors  in  this  method  are  laid  on  a 
wall  newly  plastered,  with  which  they  become  in- 
corporated. 

Encaustic. — Is  performed  with  colors  mixed  with 
wax  and  varnish  or  water  ;  the  word  implies  exe- 
cuted by  fire,  and  heat  is  employed  in  the  applica- 
tion of  the  colors,  which  are  clear  and  brilliant. 

Enamel. — A  mode  of  painting"  with  vitrified  colors 
on  g'old,  copper,  silver,  etc.  The  operation  is  per- 
formed by  fire. 

Elydoric  painting  is  that  in  which  water  and  oil  are 
both  used  in  applying-  the  colors.  Its  principal 
advantages  are  that  the  artist  is  able  to  add  the 
freshness  of  water-colors  and  the  high  finishing  of 
miniature,  to  the  mellowness  of  oil  painting",  in 
such  a  manner  that  the  work  appears  like  a  stereo- 
scopic view  when  seen  through  concave  lens. 

Mosaic. — Is  a  kind  of  painting-  executed  with  small 
pieces  of  glass,  or  wood,  pebbles,  enamel,  etc., 
fixed  upon  any  substance  with  mastic.  When  an 
artist  commences  a  work  in  mosaic,  he  cuts  on  a 
stone  plate  a  certain  space  which  he  encircles  with 
bands  of  iron.  This  space  is  covered  with  thick 
mastic,  on  which  are  laid  conformably  to  the  par- 
ticular design,  the  various  substances  intended  to 
be  used.  Fifteen  thousand  different  shades  of 
color  are  emplo3red .  The  art  is  attributed  to  the 
Greeks. 

Glass  Painting. — In  painting"  on  this  material,  the 
paints  are  mixed  with  water  and  turpentine,  and 
being  laid  on  the  glass  are  allowed  to  dry ;  the 
outline  is  then  corrected  with  a  sharp  instrument. 
The  glass  is  then  put  into  a  furnace  and  the  colors 
are  fused  into  it. 


264 


PALETTE. 


Palette. — An  oval  board,  or  piece  of  porcelain  or 
wedgwood,  on  which  an  artist  places  his  colors  for 
immediate  use.  Some  palettes  are  made  square  or 
oblong-,  others  are  cut  through  the  centre  and  sup- 
plied with  hinges,  and  a  button  to  fasten  them 
open.  These  can  be  conveniently  carried  in  the 
pocket. 


Fig.  83.— Palette. 


Fig.  84.— Palette-Cup. 


Palette-Cup. — A  small  cup  made  of  tin,  used  in  con- 
nection with  the  palette,  for  holding  liquids  :  either 
thinners  or  dryers.  Twin  cups  of  this  sort  may 
be  purchased,  and  these  are  considered  best,  as  it 
is  frequently  the  case  that  two  liquids  are  to  be 
used  in  the  work. 

Palette- Knife. — A  flat,  thin  knife,  rounded  at  the 
end,  as  shown  in  Fig.  85,  used  by  painters  to  mix 
colors  on  the  paint  stone  or  grinding  slab.  A 


c 


Fig.  85  — Palette-Knife. 

good  knife  should  possess  a  fair  degree  of  flexibil- 
ity, but  if  too  flexible  good  work  cannot  be  done 
with  it. 

Panel  Stripe. — A  striping  in  which  two  stripes  are 
connected  at  one  or  both  ends  by  a  cross  stripe, 
forming  a  square  or  panel. 


PATENT  GRAINING  ROLLER. 


265 


Pantograph — An  instrument  devised  for  the  purpose 
of  copying-  drawings,  so*  that  the  copy  may  be 
either  similar  to  or  larger  or  smaller  than  the 
original. 

Parti-Colored- — Colored  with  various  hues  or  varie- 
gated with  divers  colors. 

Paris  Green. — An  arsenite  of  copper,  and  a  rank 
poison.  It  contains  about  three  parts  copper  to 
seven  parts  of  arsenic.  It  is  sometimes  known  as 
Scheele's  Green,  but  is  in  fact  different.  (See  Mit- 
tis  Green.)  It  is  a  beautiful  light  green,  but  ow- 
ing to  the  trouble  in  spreading  it,  and  its  extreme- 
ly poisonous  character,  it  is  not  much  used  at  the 
present  day. 

Pasticcio. — A  work  of  art,  of  original  conception  as 
to  design,  but  a  direct  copy  of  the  style  and  man- 
ner of  some  other  painter. 

Patent  Yellow. — A  pigment  made  with  sea-salt  and 
litharge.  Turner's  patent  consists  in  decompos- 
ing sea-salt,  by  mixing  two  parts  salt  with  one  of 
litharge,  moistening  them  and  leaving  them  to- 
gether 24  hours.  The  product  is  then  washed, 
filtered,  and  evaporated  by  which  soda  is  obtained. 
A  white  substance  is  left  undissolved,  which,  when 
heated  changes  its  color  and  forms  Patent  or  Turn- 
er's Yellow.  This  pigment  is  highly  prized  by 
coach-painters,  making  delicate  canary  color,  with 
white,  but  it  is  a  very  hard  substance  to  grind  in 
ordinary  mills,  and  lemon  chrome  is  often  substi- 
tuted for  it. 

Patent  Graining  Roller. — An  implement  used  by 
painters  to  mark  the  grain  in  imitating  various 
woods,  the  roller  being  first  run  over  a  flat  sur- 
face of  fresh  paint,  and  then  transferred  to  the 


266 


PEACH  COLOR. 


work.  A  similar  roller,  as  shown  in  Fig-.  87,  is 
also  used  for  marking-  the  over-grain  of  oak. 

Peach  Color.— The  pale,  red  color  of  the  peach  blos- 
som, made  by  mixing  seven  parts  white  to  one 
part  each  red,  blue  and  yellow.  This  color  forms 
an  excellent  ground  for  vermilion. 

Pea-Creen. — A  light  shade  of  green  approximating 
that  of  the  pea,  made  by  mixing  five  parts  of 
white  with  one  of  chrome  green,  or  milori  green. 


Pean.  (Her.) — One  of  the  furs  in  heraldry,  differing 
from  ermine  only  in  the  tinctures ;  the  ground  be- 
ing sable  and  the  spots  gold. 

Pearl  White. — A  denomination  applied  to  two  pig- 
ments ;  one  falsely  so  called,  prepared  from  bis- 
muth, which  turns  black  in  sulphuretted  hydrogen 
gas  or  any  impure  air,  and  is  used  as  a  cosmetic  ; 
the  other  prepared  from  the  waste  of  pearls  and 
mother-of-pearl,  which  is  exquisitely  white  and  of 
good  body  in  water,  but  of  little  force  in  oil  or  var- 


Fig.  86.— Patent  Graining 
Roller. 


Fig.  87.— Combing 
Roller. 


PENCIL. 


267 


nish  ;  it  combines,  however,  with  all  other  colors 
without  injuring"  them,  and  is  itself  perfectly  per- 
manent and  innoxious. 

Pediment.  (Arch.) — A  triangular,  segmental  or 
decorative  crowning  to  a  doorway. 

Pendant- — A  cluster  of  hanging  fruit,  flowers  or 
foliage. 

Pencil- — A  name  applied  to  instruments  for  writing, 
drawing,  or  painting,  and  differing  as  much  in 
their  construction  as  in  the  use  to  which  they  are 
put.  The  class  generally  known  as  hair  pencils 
are  much  used  by  all  painters,  especially  for 
decorative  work.  They  are  really  a  variety  of 
small  brushes,  and  are  made  of  hog's  bristles, 
camel 's-hair,  fitch-hair,  sable-hair,  ox-hair,  etc., 
bound  in  quills  and  metal.  These  pencils  are 
known  by  different  names  according  to  their  use, 
or  shape  and  size,  such  as  dagger  pencils,  sword 
pencils,  lettering  pencils,  striping  pencils,  orna- 
menting pencils,  etc.  In  making  pencils  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  so  arrange  the  hairs  that 
the  ends  may  be  made  to  converge  to  a  fine  point 
when  dipped  in  turpentine.  (Here  let  us  remark: 
It  is  a  bad  practice  to  put  a  hair  pencil  in  the 
mouth,  moisten  it  with  spittle  and  draw  it  be- 
tween the  lips  to  form  a  point,  and  thus  be  ena- 
bled to  judge  of  its  shape,  for  the  warm  spittle  is 
certain  to  cause  the  hairs  to  "  crinkle  "  or  become 
crooked,  and  it  also  destroys  the  prime  feature  of 
a  good  pencil — its  elasticity.)  The  hairs  are 
fastened  in  quills,  by  first  boiling  the  quills  to 
swell  and  soften  them,  then,  when  the  hairs  are 
drawn  in,  the  quill  cools  and  shrinks  tightly 
around  the  hairs.    The  extreme  end  of  a  pencil 


Crew. 


Extra  Small  Swan. 


Large  Swan. 


PENCIL. 


269 


should  never  be  cut,  as  the  cutting*  tends  to  make 
the  end  blunt  and  no  pencil  will  then  work  well. 
Sable  lettering-  pencils  are  seldom  in  good  condi- 
tion until  they  have  been  used  for  a  time  and 
partly  worn.  Pencils  should  be  kept  in  a  covered 
box  when  not  in  use,  well  greased  with  tallow  to 
keep  them  from  drying  hard.  Striping  pencils 
may  be  cemented  down  to  glass  or  tin  with  tallow ; 
the  others  simply  laid  carefully  away. 

A  pencil  is  a  brush,  but  not  every  brush  is  a 
pencil. 

The  painter  invariably  says  lead  pencil  and 
slate  pencil,  but  seldom,  if  ever,  says  hair  pen- 
cil. 

He  will  say  fine-line  pencil,  broad-line  pencil, 
lettering  pencil,  cutting  up  pencil,  scrolling 
pencil,  ornamenting  pencil ;  and  it  is  understood 
that  they  are  made  from  some  kind  of  hair,  either 
red  or  brown  sable,  camel-hair,  squirrel-tail,  or 
Siberian  ox-hair. 

When  you  purchase  a  camel-hair  pencil,  that  is 
not  positive  evidence  that  there  is  a  filament  of 
the  hair  of  the  camel  in  it ;  and  a  set  of  sable 
pencils  which  you  prize  may  be  wholly  innocent  of 
a  hair  of  the  real  sable;  so  long  as  you  believe 
them  to  be  real  camel-hair  or  real  sable-hair,  and 
they  are  good  and  work  satisfactorily,  there  is  no 
harm  done. 

Camel-hair,  or  its  imitation,  is  softer  and 
weaker  than  real  sable,  Russian  sable  (skunk),  or 
ox-hair,  and  this  quality  adapts  them  for  soft 
touches,  and  for  use  in  all  colors  except  those 
composed  of  lead  and  zinc. 

As  each  single  hair  of  real  sable  and  its  substi- 
tute, and  ox-hair  as  well,  has  more  stiffness  than 


270 


PENCIL. 


the  former,  this  quality  renders  them  better 
adapted  for  heavy  colors. 

A  pencil  is  fitted  for  the  varieties  of  touch  re- 
quired Iry  the  length,  quantity  and  quality  of  the 
hair,  and  the  method  of  insertion. 

A  pointed  pencil  has  its  hair  inserted  in  a  round 
quill  or  ferrule. 

When  the  hair  is  inserted  flat,  the  end  of  the 
pencil  cannot  spring-  to  a  sharp  round  point. 

The  pointed  pencils  are  suited  for  fine  detail 
work,  and  to  free  strokes  of  various  kinds  when 
the  color  is  to  be  applied  heavy. 

The  flat  pencils  apply  the  color  thinner  and 
more  crisply. 

The  hair  of  pencils  range  in  length  from  ^  to 
2-J  inches. 

The  round  ornamenting  and  miniature  pencils 
have  considerable  hair  in  proportion  to  their 
length,  so  that  the  largest,  with  the  hair  1^-  long, 
is  too  stocky  to  properly  respond  to  the  touch  in 
lettering  and  striping. 

Lettering  pencils  must  be  shorter  than  those 
designed  for  drawing  stripes,  and  yet  the  letter- 
ings pencil  must  partake  somewhat  of  the  flexi- 
bility of  the  striper  in  order  to  give  true  and 
square  outlines,  which  are  in  fact  a  series  of 
short  stripes. 

The  hair  of  lettering  pencils  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses measures  from  f  to  H  inches,  as  f ,  1,  1^, 
1|  inches ;  and  as  the  length  is  increased  so  is  the 
quantity  of  material  which  preserves  the  free 
working  qualities  and  adapts  the  increased  sizes 
to  larger  work. 

Striping  pencils  must  be  weaker  than  lettering 
pencils  ;  in  other  words,  the  hair  must  be  increas- 


PENCIL. 


271 


ed  in  length — If,  2  and  2£  inches  are  the  usual 
lengths. 

The  striping  pencil  is  a  lazy  thing,  for  it  will 
not  do  duty  except  as  it  is  allowed  to  lie  flat,  and 
then  it  must  be  dragged  along.  But  therein  lies 
its  real  worth,  for  a  long  stripe  cannot  be  well 
made  by  a  series  of  short  splices. 

The  large  stripes  are  well  adapted  for  scroll 
work — for  scrolls  require  true,  clean  outlines, 
which  cannot  be  made  by  a  short  stocky  pencil. 

The  stocky  pencil,  however,  is  superior  to  the 
striper  for  filling  in  the  body  of  a  scroll  and  work- 
ing the  color  down  flat. 

The  "  cutting-up  "  pencil  is  emplo3*ed  for 
feathering  and  various  other  strokes,  which  may 
be  termed  shaded,  as  they  are  composed  of  light 
and  heavy  parts. 

The  hair  of  the  cutting-up  pencil  should  be  f  or 
1  inch  long,  and  inserted  in  a  quill  or  round  fer- 
rule. 

The  sword  pencil  is  one  in  which  the  hair  is  in- 
serted flat.  It  is  used  for  drawing  long  stripes, 
chiefly  fine  lines,  the  edge  of  the  pencil  being  ap- 
plied to  the  surface  to  be  striped. 

The  hair  being  flat  at  the  heel,  gives  it  increas- 
ed buoyancy  when  it  is  wet  with  color. 

The  "dagger"  pencil  differs  from  the  sword 
pencil,  in  having  the  hair  inserted  of  various 
lengths,  so  that  while  one  edge  is  straight  the 
other  is  beveled  from  point  to  heel. 

Like  the  sword  pencil,  it  is  used  on  its  edge,  the 
beveled  edge  being  applied. 

This  same  shape,  but  with  shorter  hair,  is 
valuable  for  producing  sweeping  strokes. 

Porcelain  painters  have  a  camel-hair  pencil, 


PENCIL. 


which  they  use  for  striping-,  that  has  the  end 
beveled  ;  and  also  a  short,  stocky  pencil  for  blend- 
ing- that  has  a  beveled  point. 

A  short,  thick  pencil  with  square  point  is  used 
for  the  same  purpose. 

For  painting-  grounds  they  use  a  short,  stocky, 
camel-hair  pencil  with  round,  blunt  point,  which 
might  be  termed  club  shape. 

All  pencils,  except  those  used  for  drawing 
stripes,  require  handles,  in  order  to  admit  of  the 
free  movement  of  the  wrist  and  fore-arm. 

These  pencils  are  held  like  a  writing  pen,  but 
the  fingers  are  kept  well  back  from  the  pencil,  and 
where  great  freedom  of  touch  is  requisite  the  hand 
is  supported  by  a  "rest-stick, "  which  is  given  a 
sweeping  motion  in  unison  with  the  arm. 

Pencils  are  made  by  hand  and  require  exceed- 
ing care  and  nicety  in  their  production  ;  and  as 
the  best  material  is  scarce  and  very  dear  it  would 
be  unreasonable  to  expect  to  get  the  best  pencil 
at  a  low  price. 

A  set  of  fine  sable  pencils,  although  seeming 
unreasonably  dear,  are  cheap  when  compared  with 
those  of  inferior  grades,  when  both  are  put  into 
constant  service.  Pencils  are  numbered  from  1 
up  to  20. 

You  may  purchase  camel-hair  lettering  and 
striping  pencils,  assorted  sizes,  at  from  $2  to  $12 
per  gross,  while  the  ordinary  black  sables  are 
worth  from  $5.50  to  $30  a  gross,  and  the  superfine 
ones  will  cost  from  $14  to  $100  per  gross. 

Pencils  are  used  for  a  variety  of  purposes  other 
than  painting  in  oil,  water  and  vitrifiable  colors. 

They  form  a  part  of  the  druggist's  stock.  The 
soft  camel-hair  pencil  is  used  in  the  sick-room  and 


PERSPECTIVE. 


273 


in  the  hospitals  for  applying  cooling-  and  healing- 
lotions,  and  in  some  instances  it  is  called  painting-, 
although  no  paint  is  used. 

Camel-hair  pencils  take  the  place  of  pens  with 
the  Chinese,  and  they  and  the  Japanese  surpass 
all  other  people  in  dexterity  of  handling. 

Penciling  Brick. — The  lines  in  imitation  of  mortar 
are  drawn  with  a  brush,  called  by  some  a  ' 'brick 
header"  (q.  v.),  along  a  straight-edge.  The  paint 
should  be  mixed  with  turpentine,  and  be  used  thick 
enough  not  to  run. 


Pencil  Over-Crainer. — Several  pencils  set  in  a  block 
of  wood  or  other  handle  for  drawing  a  number  of 
lines  at  one  time  and  at  an  equal  distance  apart 
in  over-graining. 

Perspective- — The  art  of  representing,  on  a  plane 
surface,  the    appearance   of    objects,  however 


Fig.  89.— Pencil  Over-Grainer. 


i 


PERSPECTIVE. 


diversified,  similar  to  that  they  assume  upon  a 
glass-pane  interposed  between  them  and  the  eye 
at  a  given  distance.  The  representation  of  a  solid 
object  on  a  plane  surface  can  show  the  original  in 
no  other  point  of  view  but  that  from  which  it  is  at 
the  time  beheld  by  the  draughtsman  ;  the  least 
change  in  any  of  the  parts  require  a  change  in  the 
whole;  unless  in  fancy  drawings  where  a  facsimile 
is  not  required.  Nor  can  any  deviation  from  the 
several  lines,  which  will  be  hereafter  explained, 
and  on  which  the  truth  and  correctness  of  repre- 
sentation depend,  be  allowed  without  changing 
the  bearings,  direction  and  tendency  of  all  perspec- 
tive lines  which  constitute  the  basis  of  that  faith- 
ful and  converging  series  which  unite  all  the  com- 
ponent parts  in  the  most  pleasing  and  harmonious 
manner.  The  following  definitions  of  the  princi- 
pal features  in  the  science  and  application  of  per- 
spective will  prove  useful  to  the  student, viz.:  pro- 
jection delineates  objects  in  plane,  by  means  of 
right  lines  called  rays,  supposed  to  be  drawn 
from  every  angle  of  the  object,  to  particular  points. 
When  the  objects  are  angular,  these  rays  necessa- 
rily form  pyramids,  having  the  plane  or  superfices, 
whence  they  proceed,  for  their  basis  ;  but  when 
drawn  from  or  to  circular  objects  they  form  a 
cone.  Ichnography,  or  ichnographic  projection, 
is  described  by  right  lines  parallel  among  them- 
selves, and  perpendicular  to  the  horizon,  from 
every  angle  of  every  object,  on  a  plane  parallel 
to  the  horizon,  the  points  where  the  perpendicu- 
lar lines  or  rays  cut  that  plane  being  joined  by 
right  lines.  The  figure  projected  on  the  horizon- 
tal plane  is  likewise  called  the  plan,  or  seat  of 
that  object  on  the  ground  plane.    The  points  are 


PERSPECTIVE. 


275 


the  sites,  or  seats  of  the  angles  of  the  object. 
The  lines  are  the  seats  of  the  sides.  By  this  we 
are  to  understand  how  the  basis  of  figures  repre- 
sented as  superstructure  stand,  or  are  support- 
ed ;  and  we  are  further  enabled  to  judge  of,  indeed 
to  measure,  their  several  parts  and  their  areas. 

Orthography  represents  the  vertical  position 
and  appearance  of  an  object ;  hence  orthographic 
projection  is  called  elevation.  When  we  see  the 
front  of  a  house,  we  give  it  that  term,  but  when 
the  side  is  displayed,  we  call  it  the  profile.  If  we 
suppose  a  house  or  other  object  to  be  divided  by 
a  plane  passing  perpendicularly  through  it  in  a 
line  at  right  angles  with  the  point,  we  call  it  the 
lateral  section ;  but  if  the  plane  pass  in  a  direc- 
tion parallel  with  the  front,  it  is  termed  a  longi- 
tudinal section.  If  the  plane  passes  in  neither  of 
the  former  directions  (not,  however,  deviating 
from  the  vertical)  it  is  said  to  be  an  oblique  sec- 
tion. 

These  give  us  modes  of  laying  down  plans,  of 
showing  the  parts  and  the  manner  in  which  the 
interiors  of  edifices  are  arranged  ;  consequently 
are  indispensible  to  the  architect  or  surveyor,  and 
indeed  should  be  understood  by  every  person  in 
any  way  connected  with  building  or  designing. 
Nor  should  the  following  be  neglected,  viz.:  sce- 
nography,  which  shows  us  how  to  direct  the  visual 
rays  to  every  point  or  part  of  a  picture  ;  and 
stereography,  which  enables  us  to  represent  solids 
on  a  plane,  from  geometrical  projection ;  whence 
their  several  dimensions,  i.e.,  length,  breadth  and 
thickness  may  all  be  represented,  and  be  cor- 
rectly understood  at  sight.  We  suppose  our 
readers  to  have  some  knowledge  of  geometry  be- 


276 


PERSPECTIVE. 


fore  they  commence  on  this  or  any  other  of  the 
abstract  sciences  which  are  founded  thereon. 

An  original  object  is  that  which  becomes  the 
subject  of  the  picture,  and  which  is  the  parent  of 
the  design.  Any  plane  figure  may  become  an  ob- 
ject, as  may  any  of  its  parts,  as  a  broken  pillar, 
the  ruins  of  a  house,  the  stump  or  branch  of  a 
tree  ;  but  we  generally  speak  of  objects  as  relating 
to  entire  figures  as  solids,  or  to  as  much  rural  or 
other  scenery  as  may  be  embraced  under  an  angle 
of  60  degrees  formed  by  two  lines  meeting  at  the 
eye.  This  will  explain  why  we  are  enabled  to  rep- 
resent so  great  a  number  of  distant  objects,  while 
the  front  or  foreground  will  contain,  comparative- 
ly, but  a  few  ;  it  being  obvious  that  as  the  lines 
forming  the  angle  become  more  distant,  the  more 
may  be  included  in  them. 

Original  planes,  or  lines,  are  the  surfaces  of  the 
objects  to  be  drawn ;  or  they  are  any  lines  of  those 
surfaces  ;  or  it  means  the  surfaces  on  which  these 
objects  stand. 

Perspective  plane  is  the  picture  itself,  which  is 
supposed  to  be  a  transparent  plane,  through 
which  we  view  the  objects  represented  thereon. 

Vanishing  planes  are  those  planes  which  are 
marked  upon  the  picture,  by  supposing  lines  to  be 
drawn  from  the  spectator's  e3^e  parallel  to  any 
original  lines,  and  produced  until  they  touch  the 
picture. 

Ground  plane  is  the  surface  of  the  earth,  or 
plane  of  the  horizon,  on  which  the  picture  is  sup- 
posed to  stand. 

The  ground  line  is  formed  by  the  intersection  of 
the  picture  in  the  ground  plane. 

The  horizontal  line  is  the  vanishing  point  of 


PERSPECTIVE. 


277 


the  horizontal  plane,  and  produced  in  the  same 
manner  as  any  other  vanishing'  line,  i.  e.,  by  pass- 
ing* a  plane  through  the  eye  parallel  to  horizontal 
plane. 

The  point  of  sight  is  the  fixed  point  from  which 
the  spectator  views  the  perspective  plane. 

Vanishing  points  are  the  points  which  are  mark- 
ed down  in  the  picture,  by  supposing  lines  to  be 
drawn  from  the  spectator's  eye,  parallel  to  any 
original  lines,  and  produced  until  they  touch  the 
picture. 

The  centre  of  a  picture  is  that  point  on  the  per- 
spective plane  where  a  line  drawn  from  the  eye 
perpendicular  to  the  picture,  would  cut  it,  conse- 
quently it  is  that  part  of  the  picture  which  is  near- 
est to  the  eye  of  the  spectator. 

The  distance  of  the  picture  is  the  distance  from 
the  eye  to  the  centre  of  the  picture.  If  what  has 
been  already  said  and  repeated,  regarding  the 
angle  of  60  degrees,  is  understood,  the  spectator 
will  never  bring  the  picture  so  near  to  himself  as 
to  occasion  the  eyes  to  expand,  indeed  to  strain, 
so  as  to  embrace  more  than  that  angle. 

The  distance  of  a  vanishing  point  is  the  distance 
from  the  eye  to  that  point  where  the  converging- 
lines  meet.  All  parallel  lines  have  the  same  van- 
ishing points  :  that  is,  all  such  as  are  in  a  build- 
ing, parallel  to  each  other,  when  not  represented 
exactly  opposite  to  and  parallel  with  the  eye,  will 
appear  to  converge  toward  some  remote  point,  i.e., 
their  vanishing  point.  Circles  when  retiring-  in 
such  manner,  are  represented  by  ellipses,  pro- 
portioned to  their  distances  ;  their  dimensions  are 
ascertained  by  enclosing  them  within  a  square, 
which  being  divided  into  any  number  of  equal  parts 


278 


PERMANENT  WOOD-FILLING. 


or  checkers,  will  show  all  the  proportions  of  those 
most  remote.  A  bird's-eye  view  is  supposed  to  be 
taken  from  some  elevated  spot  which  commands 
such  a  prospect  as  nearly  resembles  the  plane  or 
ichnography  of  the  places  seen.  Thus  a  view 
from  a  high  tower,  or  from  a  mountain,  gives 
nearly  the  same  representation  as  if  offered  to  a 
bird  flying-  over  them  ;  whence  the  term. 

Permanent  Wood-Filling.— A  patented  mixture 
similar  in  appearance  to  varnish,  designed  for  the 
first  coat  or  priming  on  any  substance  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  varnish  or  paint  coats. 

Picking  Out- — A  name  used  by  English  painters  in 
the  same  sense  that  we  in  America  use  the  word 
striping. 

Pigment. — Paint:  A  preparation  used  by  painters, 
etc.,  to  impart  color  to  bodies. 

Pink. — A  light  red  or  rose  color.  Pinks  are  produced 
by  extreme  dilution  of  cochineal,  carmine,  Brazil- 
wood colors,  with  whiting.  Some  mineral  pinks 
for  oil  colors  are  obtained  from  preparations  of 
manganese.  The  term  pink  is  also  applied  to 
several  yellow  colors,  as  Dutch  Pink,  etc. 

Pinxt. — An  abbreviation  of  the  Latin  word  Pinxit, 
which  an  artist  usually  places  after  his  name  on 
any  of  his  productions,  and  which  means :  He 
painted  it. 

Pin- Holing. — Innumerable  small  indentations  in  a 
varnished  surface,  caused  in  most  cases  in  the 
same  manner  as  pitting  (q.  v.).  It  is  generally 
attributable  to  the  sweating  of  the  under  coat  of 
varnish,  or  to  color  which  has  dried  with  an  oily 
or  glossy  surface.    Pin-holing-  is  one  of  the  dev- 


PITTING. 


279 


iltries  of  varnish,  and  at  times,  with  all  the  care 
the  painter  may  have  taken  to  guard  against  it, 
it  will  occur.  Wiping-  the  surface  with  a  damp 
chamois  before  laying  the  varnish,  will  be  found 
a  ready  means  of  preventing  trouble. 

Pitting. — A  trouble  or  "deviltry"  which  besets  the 
painter,  and  consists  in  the  surface  of  a  coat  of 
varnish  being  filled  with  small  pits  or  hollows, 
like  the  marks  on  the  face  of  a  person  who  has  had 
small-pox.  The  causes  for  this  are  many  and  goes 
to  show  how  extremely  careful  and  how  intelli- 
gently the  coach-painter  must  do  his  work.  Pit- 
ting may  arise  when  too  much  oil  has  been  used 
in  the  under  coats  ;  when  the  rubbing  varnish  has 
a  very  hard  or  glossy  surface;  when  the  last 
rubbing  coat  is  a  mixture  of  varnish  and  japan  or 
turpentine,  or  two  varnishes  of  different  make — 
the  surface  is  then  uneven  and  when  rubbed  with 
pumice-stone  one  part  rubs  hard,  another  soft; 
the  soft  portions  not  affiliating  with  the  outer 
coat,  forms  pits  ;  and  where  the  hard  spots  are  the 
varnish  appears  bright.  When  the  rubbing  has 
been  too  thorough  and  several  coatings  have  been 
laid  bare,  so  that  the  different  varnishes  under- 
neath exercise  a  sufficient  degree  of  absorption  to 
cause  pits  ;  when  the  varnish  is  at  fault,  is  too 
fresh,  is  dirt3T,  or  the  gas  generated  in  the  can  has 
not  been  allowed  to  escape  before  putting  the  var- 
nish in  use ;  when  particles  have  got  upon  the  sur- 
face while  preparing  it  for  varnish,  as  through  im- 
pure water,  or  from  a  dirty  chamois  skin,  or 
sponge,  or  soap,  grease,  etc.  The  breath  of  the 
workman  will  materially  affect  a  surface  so  that 
pitting  may  occur.    If  the  brushes  used  w7ere  not 


280 


PLASTERING. 


clean,  or  if  they  have  been  kept  suspended  in  oil. 
A  draft  of  cold  air  will  cause  pitting-.  A  change 
in  the  temperature  of  the  room  will  affect  the  var- 
nish, and  to  sum  up  :  if  the  room,  the  varnish,  the 
work,  etc.,  is  not  as  it  should  be  there  will  be 
trouble,  and  it  is  no  wonder  the  painter  calls  such 
"  deviltries." 

Plastering.— Spreading-  paint  or  putty  with  a  putty- 
knife. 

Plum  Color. — A  sort  of  purple  color,  made  by  mix- 
ing two  parts  white,  one  Prussian  blue  and  one 
red. 

Polishing.— In  olden  times  all  fine  work  in  the  car- 
riage shop  was  polished,  for  flowing  varnish  was 
then  unknown.  It  is  done  in  the  following  man- 
ner :  Several  coats  of  hard-drying  copal  varnish 
having  been  applied  and  thoroughly  hardened,  the 
surface  is  well  rubbed  with  pulverized  pumice- 
stone  and  water  in  the  same  manner  as  in  prepar- 
ing the  surface  for  varnishing  over.  A  good  wash- 
ing follows,  then  pulverized  rotten-stone  is  used  in 
place  of  the  pumice-stone,  and  the  surface  is 
rubbed  until  it  presents  a  smooth  and  semi-shin- 
ing appearance,  then  sweet  oil  is  substituted  for 
the  water  and  the  rubbing  with  rotten-stone  and 
oil  is  continued  until  a  brilliant  gloss  is  obtained. 
The  oil  is  next  removed  with  soft  rags  and  wheat 
flour. 

Polishing  with  spirit-varnish  is  best  adapted  for 
furniture,  pianos,  the  inside  fittings  of  carriages, 
etc.,  and  is  done  as  follows  : 

Having  made  the  surface  of  the  wood  as  clean 
and  smooth  as  possible,  and  having  well  dusted 
it,  the  next  thing  to  do  is  to  fill  all  open-grained 


POLISHING. 


281 


places  with  one  of  the  many  wood  fillers  now  in 
market,  or  with  a  mixture  of  corn  starch  and  ja- 
pan. A  good  sand-papering-  with  No.  0  or  1  sand- 
paper prepares  it  for  the  polish.  The  polish  con- 
sists of  spirits  of  wine,  1  pint ;  gum  sandarac,  i 
oz.;  gum  lac,  i  oz.;  gum  shellac, -§  oz.  Expose 
the  whole  to  a  gentle  heat,  frequently  shaking 
the  mixture  until  the  gums  are  dissolved. 

Another.  Wood  naptha,  i  pint ;  orange  shell 
lac,  1  oz.;  dragon's  blood,  £  oz.;  benzoin,  \  oz.; 
prepare  as  above. 

Another.  Orange  shell  lac,  1|  ozs.;  spirits  of 
wine,  1  pint ;  mix  as  above. 

The  method  of  applying  these  polishes  is  the 
same  for  all.  A  flannel  rubber  is  made  and  dipped 
in  the  polish  and  a  piece  of  fine  old  linen  is  then 
put  over  the  rubber.  When  the  polish  oozes 
through  the  covering,  slightly  moisten  the  pad 
with  linseed  oil.  Another  way  is  to  strain  the 
linen  over  the  flannel  pad  and  then  to  moisten  the 
linen  with  a  drop  or  two  of  the  polish,  and  a  drop 
or  two  of  oil.  The  pad  should  be  held  in  the  right 
hand,  and  the  linen  strained  tightly,  so  that  the 
pad  may  present  a  rounded  surface.  Apply  the 
pad  to  the  surface  of  the  wood  in  a  series  of  light 
strokes,  made  by  a  circular  sweep  of  the  hand,  un- 
til the  surface  is  nearly  dry,  when  the  pad  should 
be  passed  up  and  down  in  the  direction  of  the 
grain  of  the  wood.  When  the  rubber  is  dry,  some 
more  polish  and  oil  must  be  put  upon  it  in  the 
same  manner  as  before  and  the  rubbing  continued. 

Plenty  of  what  is  generally  called  "  elbow 
grease  "  should  be  given  to  the  work,  and  not  too 
much  polish.  Beginners  generally  lay  on  a  large 
quantity  of  polish  in  clots  or  thick  coats,  but  when 


282 


POLISHING. 


this  is  done  the  polish  does  not  look  well,  neither 
has  it  permanent  effect.  No  more  polish  should 
be  laid  on  than  is  absolutely  necessary  ;  the  polish 
should  be  well  rubbed  in  and  finished  off  with  a 
little  spirits  of  wine  or  naptha,  whichever  happens 
to  be  used  in  the  polish.  The  naptha  or  spirits  of 
wine,  as  the  case  may  be,  should  at  first  be  laid  on 
very  gentry,  and  with  great  care,  otherwise  it  will 
dissolve  and  remove  the  polish  already  laid  on ; 
but  if  care  is  taken,  its  effect  will  be  not  only  to 
give  the  polish  a  better  gloss,  but  to  render  it 
more  lasting.  Some  woods  absorb  a  great  deal  of 
polish  and  in  order  to  prevent  it  a  coat  of  size  or 
shellac  varnish  is  given  before  the  application  of 
the  polish. 

In  the  Dictionaire  Technologique,  an  accurate 
French  work,  we  find  the  following  directions  for 
French  polishing : 

Gum  sandarac,  fourteen  ounces  and  two 
drachms  ;  gum  mastic  in  drops,  seven  ounces  and 
one  drachm;  shellac  (the  yellower  the  better), 
fourteen  ounces  and  two  drachms ;  alcohol  of 
0.8295  sp.  gr.,  three  quarts  and  one  pint. 

Pound  the  resinous  gums  and  effect  their  solu- 
tion by  continued  agitation,  without  the  aid  of 
heat. 

If  the  woods  are  porous,  seven  ounces  and  one 
drachm  of  Venice  turpentine. 

Before  using  the  polish,  the  wood  should  be  made 
to  imbibe  a  little  linseed  oil,  the  excess  of  which 
should  be  removed  with  soft  rags.  The  polish 
should  be  applied  by  saturating  a  piece  of  old  soft 
coarse  linen  cloth,  folded  into  a  sort  of  cushion, 
rubbing  the  wood  softly  at  first,  turning  the  linen 
until  nearly  dry,  then  saturating  and  rubbing 


PRIMARY  COLORS. 


283 


again.  If  the  polish  becomes  sticky  apply  a  drop 
or  two  of  olive  oil.  Finish  by  rubbing-  with  a  clean 
cloth  moistened  with  pure  alcohol. 

Potash  Lye* — A  solution  of  potash  is  used  by  the 
painter  for  removing-  or  "  eating  off"  varnish  or 
paint.  It  is  excellent  for  cleaning  varnish  cups, 
the  cups  being  thrown  into  an  earthen  vessel  filled 
with  the  lye  and  allowed  to  remain  until  wanted 
for  use,  when  a  good  washing  in  water  renders 
them  as  clean  as  when  new. 

Pounce-Bag. — A  small  bag  containing  a  dry  color- 
ing substance.  In  some  instances,  whiting  tied  in 
a  rag,  the  ends  and  corners  being  brought  togeth- 
er and  firmly  fastened.  It  is  used  to  distribute 
whiting  over  a  surface  to  be  gilded,  which  effectu- 
ally prevents  the  gold  from  adhering ;  also  when 
the  painter  has  drawn  a  pattern  of  a  scroll  or 
other  ornament  on  stiff  paper,  he  perforates  the 
lines  with  pin-holes,  and  then  laying  the  pattern 
upon  the  job  in  hand,  gently  rubs  it  or  pats  it 
with  the  pounce-bag,  which  drives  the  powder 
through  the  perforations  and  marks  the  outlines 
of  the  design  on  the  surface  beneath.  For  glass 
or  light-colored  grounds  some  Venetian  red  or 
other  cheap  reddish  pigment  is  used. 

Primary  Colors. — In  the  theory  of  painting,  red, 
yellow  and  blue  are  called  primary  colors,  be- 
cause they  are  those  from  which  all  other  colors 
are  supposed  to  be  derived  ;  and  the}7  cannot  of 
themselves  be  resolved  or  decomposed  into  other 
colors. 

When  two  primary  colors  are  mixed  they  form 
secondaries  (q.  v.) .  When  all  three  of  the  primaries 
are  mixed  in  equal  strength  and  proportion  they 


284 


PRIMING. 


kill  each  other  and  produce  black ;  or  in  a  state 
of  dilution  gray.  The  primaries  and  secondaries 
are  the  sources  from  which  all  other  tints  and 
hues  are  formed. 

Priming. — The  first  coat  applied  to  a  surface. 
White  lead  and  oil  was  at  one  time  the  only  pre- 
paration for  priming-  in  use,  but  of  late  years 
there  are  many  preparations,  each  claiming-  supe- 
riority.   (See  American  Method.) 

Prussian  Blue.— A  color  discovered  by  Diesbach,  of 
Berlin,  in  1720,  and  then  studied  out  theoretically 
and  practically  by  many  chemists  and  manufac- 
turers. The  pigment  is  made  from  dried  blood, 
hair,  wool,  waste  of  skins  and  leather,  flesh,  ani- 
mal oils,  soot,  and  hone-black,  in  connection  with 
carbonate  of  potassa,  alum,  sulphate  of  iron,  etc. 

It  is  one  of  the  strongest  colorings  in  the  list  of 
colors,  and  is  a  veiy  durable  color,  either  in  its 
purity,  or  when  added  to  white  in  the  formation  of 
tints  or  light  blues.  Being  inferior  in  point  of 
brilliancy  or  richness  to  ultramarine,  it  is  seldom 
used  as  a  color  on  carriages,  but  as  a  ground  for 
ultramarine  it  has  no  equal.  Prussian  blue  being 
a  primary  color  it  cannot  be  formed  by  any  mix- 
ture of  pigments,  but  it  enters  into  all  the  broken 
colors  as  browns,  purples,  grays,  etc.,  which 
makes  it  a  very  useful  color  on  the  paint  bench. 
Prussian  blue  may  be  made  changeable  by  simply 
coating  a  surface  with  "dead  color"  and  then 
using  clear  varnish  over  it.  This  leaves  that  red- 
dish sheen  always  noticeable  in  the  dry  color,  and 
gives  it  the  appearance  of  double  color. 

Prussian  Brown. — A  color  obtained  by  adding  a 
solution  of  yellow  prussiate  of  potash  to  a  solu- 


PUMICE. 


285 


tion  of  sulphate  of  copper,  which  throws  down  a 
precipitate  of  deep  brown ;  this,  when  washed  and 
dried,  is  equal  to  madder,  and  possesses  greater 
permanency. 

Pumice,  or  Block  Pumice-Stone. — Lava  thrown 
from  a  volcano,  of  which  there  are  two  varieties, 
the  light  and  the  dark,  the  former  deriving-  the 
name  pumice  from  its  appearance  to  foam.  The 
lava,  after  being-  ejected,  is  influenced  by  the  con- 
ditions in  which  it  is  placed.  When  cooled  under 
pressure  it  becomes  compact  and  sometimes 
changed  into  solid  rock  ;  but  when  cooled  in  the 
open  air  it  presents  the  form  and  structure  of  the 
article  of  commerce  which  is  familiar  to  every 
painter. 

The  word  pumice  is  supposed  to  be  from  the  root 
of  the  Latin,  Spuma,  foam — because  the  stone 
bears  a  strong  resemblance  to  foam.  Nicholson 
said  it  is  a  substance  frequently  ejected  from  vol- 
canoes, of  various  colors,  gray,  white,  reddish- 
brown  or  black;  hard,  rough,  and  porous  ;  specifi- 
cally lighter  than  water,  and  resembling  the  slag 
produced  in  an  iron  furnace.  It  appears  to  con- 
sist of  parallel  fibers,  owing  to  the  parallelism  and 
minuteness  of  the  crowded  cells.  It  is  supposed 
to  be  produced  by  the  disengagement  of  gas,  in 
which  the  lava  is  in  a  plastic  state. 

Pumice  is  of  three  kinds — glassy,  common,  and 
porphyritic.  That  which  is  termed  gray  is  best 
adapted  for  cutting  down  a  painted  surface,  but  it 
must  be  selected  with  a  view  to  lightness  and  po- 
rosity. That  in  which  the  pores  are  large,  cuts 
fast,  but  also  wears  awa}7  very  rapidly  ;  but  this 
kind  is  preferable  to  that  variety  which  is  very 
close,  and  has  solid  veins  through  it. 


286 


PUMICE. 


Pumice-stone  has  a  grain  or  a  direction  in  which 
the  partition  walls  run,  and  the  tooth,  or  cut- 
ting- edge,  is  obtained  by  sawing  the  stone  at 
right  angles  or  across  the  fibers,  which  exposes 
the  cells,  and  prevents  the  stone  from  readily  clog- 
ging. The  skillful  rubber  prepares  his  pieces  of 
pumice-stone  to  suit  the  various  sizes  and  shapes 
of  the  surfaces  presented,  which  may  be  plane, 
convex,  or  concave. 

The  necessary  implements  are  a  good  saw  to 
divide  the  lumps,  and  a  good  file  to  assist  in  fac- 
ing the  pieces  and  shaping  them,  and  to  round  off 
all  the  jagged  edges  of  the  stone  beyond  the  cut- 
ting face. 

The  sawing  and  shaping  should  be  done  by  the 
aid  of  water,  the  usual  plan  being  to  keep  a  file  in 
a  bucket  of  water,  and  to  immerse  the  stone  while 
refacing  it ;  or,  two  flat-faced  pieces  may  be 
rubbed  together  in  water. 

When  there  is  at  hand  a  large  level  piece  of 
English  rubbing  stone,  it  also  answers  well  for 
facing  the  pumice-stone,  and  if  the  latter  retains  a 
little  of  the  grit  of  the  coarser  stone,  it  will  assist 
in  cutting  the  rough  stuff  in  the  early  stage  of  the 
rubbing,  but  would  not  be  advisable  at  a  later 
period. 

Professional  rubbers  (those  who  do  nothing  else) 
are  quick  to  select  the  stones  best  suited  to  the 
work  in  hand,  and  to  shape  them  to  fit  corners^ 
and  both  convex  and  concave  parts.  The  flat  sur- 
face is  not  by  any  means  the  easiest  to  cut  down 
level,  from  the  fact  that  the  so-called  flat  surface  is 
often  slightly  sunken,  so  that  the  flat-faced  piece 
has  to  be  used  cautiously  until  it  conforms  itself  to 
the  hollows.   The  slightly  convex  surface  is  the 


PUMICE. 


287 


easiest  to  handle,  while  the  concave  needs  consid- 
erable care ;  but  if  the  stone  is  shaped  pretty 
nearly  to  the  convexity  presented  it  will  soon  wear 
itself  down  to  a  perfect  fit,  but  even  then  the  rub- 
bing- must  proceed  cautiously  to  avoid  scratching-. 
Crosswise,  at  an  angle,  is  the  better  plan,  and  if 
when  near  the  finish  there  are  small  places  that 
the  stone  did  not  bring  down  low  enough,  they 
may  be  corrected  with  smaller  pieces  of  stone. 

Some  years  ago  a  coarse,  irregular-shaped  stone 
was  introduced  to  the  notice  of  painters  as  English 
rubbing  stone.  If  it  was  intended  to  supersede 
pumice-stone  it  signally  failed  ;  but  the  painters 
g-ave  it  a  place  in  the  rough-body  room,  and  after 
fair  trial  rendered  the  verdict  that  it  was  useful 
for  cutting  the  outer  surface  of  the  rough-stuff, 
but  too  firm  and  granular  for  the  close  work  re- 
quired at  the  close  of  rubbing,  and  at  this  point  it 
was  cast  aside  for  the  old  and  ever-reliable 
pumice-stone. 

An  innovation  which  came  to  stay  was  that  of 
manufactured  block  pumice,  well  known  as  shu- 
macher  fabrik.  Now  here  was  a  happ}^  thought, 
for  the  blocks  were  composed  of  real  pumice-stone, 
and  having  porosity  in  imitation  of  it,  graded  into 
three  degrees  of  fineness,  as  No.  1,2,  3,  or  coarse, 
medium,  and  fine. 

The  blocks  resembled  bricks  with  the  upper 
corners  rounded  off.  At  first  sight  the  painter 
handled  them  suspiciously,  probably  because  they 
looked  so  solid,  smooth,  and  trim.  He  was  so  ac- 
customed to  the  rough  appearance  of  the  natural 
stone  in  the  lump  that  he  had  serious  doubts  that 
man  could  successfully  imitate  that  made  by  the 
original  manufacturers,  the  terrible  volcanoes. 


288 


PUNCTUATION. 


But  it  was  long"  ago  settled  that  the  imitation  is 
superior  to  the  real  in  the  particulars  of  being 
convenient  in  form,  equal  in  cutting  qualities,  and 
more  economical  in  use. 

Pulverized  pumice-stone  is  used  for  leveling  or 
removing  the  imperfections  on  a  varnished  surface 
by  rubbing  with  a  cloth  or  felt  in  connection  with 
water,  preparatory  to  re-varnishing  or  polishing. 

Punctuation  of  Signs. — The  correct  punctuation 
of  a  sign  is  of  more  importance  than  many  sup- 
pose, and  to  give  some  idea  of  punctuation  we  add 
a  few  of  the  most  important: 

MEN'S  AND  BOYS'  CLOTHING. 
LADIES'  SALOON. 
CASHIER'S  DESK. 
U.  S.  EXPRESS  CO. 
BROWN,  JONES  &  ROBINSON. 

The  period  (.)  is  used  at  the  end  of  every  sen- 
tence, even  if  it  be  but  one  word  ,  as  Bank.  Boots 
and  Shoes.  John  Hall,  Dealer  in  Paints,  Oils 
and  Glass. 

The  comma  (,)  is  used  to  show  the  omission  of 
words  as  shown  in  the  following : 

Brown  and  Hall  and  Co.  are  Dealers  in  Hats 
and  Caps  and  Furs  and  so  forth. 

To  avoid  the  use  of  and  the  comma  is  substitut- 
ed, thus  : 

Brown,  Hall  &  Co.,  Dealers  in  Hats,  Caps, 
Furs,  etc. 

The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  to  show  the  omission 
of  letters  in  the  beginning  or  middle  of  a  word, 
thus  :  Compyy  for  company  ;  genH  agH  for  gen- 
eral agent. 


PUTTY. 


289 


It  is  also  used  to  show  the  possessive,  thus : 
Blair's  Store.    Smith's  Boat. 

If  the  owner's  name  terminates  with  an  s  the 
apostrophe  follows  the  s  ;  as  Jones'  Store.  Al- 
though we  frequentty  see  signs  where  the  s  is 
added,  it  is  not  correct,  and  particularly  is  this 
deplored  in  the  writing*  of  a  name  ending  with 
double  s  as  Bliss's  Store. 

When  more  than  one  person  is  spoken  of  in  the 
possessive,  the  apostrophe  should  follow  the  s, 
as  Gents'  Room,  Brown  Brothers'  Bank. 

When  a  period  (.)  would  tend  to  throw  a  line  out 
of  perfect  uniformity  it  may  be  omitted  without 
great  detriment,  but  with  care  in  laying  out  the  let- 
tering this  need  not  occur.  It  is  generally  best  not 
to  take  into  the  measurement  of  a  line  of  letters  the 
period  at  the  end,  as  it  will  tend  to  throw  the  last 
letter  too  far  from  the  edge  of  the  sign  board. 

Purple. — One  of  the  secondary  colors,  being  a  mix- 
ture of  five  parts  red  to  eight  of  blue,  which  forms 
a  perfect  purple. 

Putty- — A  kind  of  paste  or  cement,  of  which  there 
are  several  varieties ;  1,  putty  for  glass  in  win- 
dows, and  for  nail-holes,  etc.,  in  house  painting,  is 
made  of  whiting  and  linseed  oil  kneaded  into  a 
stiff  dough.  2.  French  Putty.  Seven  pounds  lin- 
seed oil  and  four  pounds  umber  are  boiled  for  two 
hours,  and  62  grammes  wax  stirred  in.  After  re- 
moval from  the  fire  5-J  lbs.  fine  chalk  (whiting) 
and  11  lbs.  white  lead  are  added  and  thoroughly 
incorporated :  this  putty  is  said  to  be  very  hard 
and  permanent.  3.  Carriage  Putty. — Dry  white 
lead  and  whiting  equal  parts,  made  into  a  dough 
with  equal  parts  of  rubbing  varnish  and  Crown 


290 


PUTTY-KNIFE. 


coach  japan.  4.  Carriage  Putty.  —  White-lead 
in  oil  and  whiting"  in  equal  parts  (in  hulk,  not 
weight)  made  into  a  dough  with  Crown  coach 
japan.  5.  "Glazing  or  Plastering"  Putty. — 
White-lead  in  oil,  a  little  lamp-black  to  color,  mix 
to  a  paint  consistency,  with  brown  japan,  then 
thicken  to  soft  putty  by  adding  either  dry  white 
lead  or  whiting.  6.  Putty  for  Hearse  Glasses. — 
Mix  lamp-black  to  a  soft  putty  consistency  with 
rubbing  varnish  and  oil  equal  parts,  then  pro- 
cure a  piece  of  plush  or  coarse  velvet  and  unravel 
it,  so  as  to  secure  the  short  fibre  or  flockings ;  mix 
this  intimately  with  the  putty,  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  plasterer  mixes  his  cow-hair  with  plas- 
ter ;  and  when  it  is  put  around  a  glass  in  a  hearse 
body  no  fear  may  be  felt  of  the  putty  rattling  out 
to  endanger  the  glass. 

Putty- Knife. — A  short-bladed  knife  with  either  a 
pointed  or  a  square  end,  used  for  spreading  putty 
in  nail-holes,  etc.,  or  for  puttying  around  glass  in 
window  frames. 


291 


Q 

Quaker  Green. — A  green  of  olive  cast;  sometimes 
called  bronze-green.  It  can  be  purchased  ready 
prepared  in  cans  of  1  or  5  lbs.  capacity. 

Quarter.  (Her.) — An  ordinary  of  quadrangular  form 
resembling'  a  banner,  and  laid  as  a  charge  upon 
the  field  of  which  it  contains  one-fourth  part,  as 
the  name  implies. 

Quartering.  (Her.) — The  marshalling  or  regular 
arrangement  of  various  coats  in  one  shield,  there- 
by denoting-  the  several  alliances  of  one  family 
with  the  heiresses  of  others. 

Qualities  of  Pigments.— The  general  qualities  of 
good  pigments,  technically  called  colors,  are  :  1, 
beauty  of  color,  which  includes  purity,  brightness 
and  depth  ;  2,  body  ;  3,  transparency  or  opacity  ;  4, 
working  well ;  5,  keeping  their  place  ;  6,  drying 
well ;  and  7,  durability  ;  but  few  pigments  possess 
all  these  qualities  in  equal  proportion. 

Quick  Leveling  Varnish.— As  its  name  implies,  it 
is  a  varnish  to  be  used  for  leveling-  coats  on  car- 
riage bodies  or  gears,  and  dries  quickly.  For 
hurried  work  it  has  no  superior.  It  can  be  rubbed 
in  ten  hours  without  sweating,  and  being  a  free 
working  varnish,  a  good  surface  can  be  easily 
brought  up  with  it.  It  rubs  nicely,  and  is  an  ex- 
cellent varnish  for  inside  house  work  or  for  furni- 


292 


QUICK  BLACK  LACQUER. 


ture,  and  in  fact  any  use  where  a  hard,  quick 
varnish  is  desired. 

Quick  Black  Lacquer.— A  jet-black,  and  very 
quick-drying*  lacquer  (or  japan)  for  hastily  repair- 
ing- the  iron  work  of  carriages,  etc.  It  dries  in  an 
hour,  and  requires  to  be  varnished  over.  Black 
japan  is  preferable  because  more  durable. 

Quick  Color. — Color  made  to  dry  quickly.  Mix  the 
dry  pigment,  black,  blue,  green,  etc.,  with  a  good 
quality  of  japan,  which  may  be  tested  by  putting 
a  few  drops  in  the  palm  of  the  hand,  and  then 
adding  a  little  raw  linseed  oil — if  the  japan 
be  good,  the  mixture  will  not  curdle,  but  a  perfect 
assimilation  of  the  two  will  result — and  run  the 
paint  through  the  mill  as  fine  as  possible. 
This  "  quick  color,"  by  the  addition  of  varnish,  is 
made  into  color-and-varnish,  and  the  addition  of 
oil  (a  tablespoonful  to  a  pint  of  paint)  forms  panel 
color.  Paint  that  has  oil  in  it  should  not  be  used 
for  making  color-and-varnish,  as  it  is  liable  to 
"crawl"  or  "pit." 


293 


R 

Railway  Coach  Finishing-Varnish.—  This  var- 
nish is  to  the  car-painter  what  wearing-body  is 
to  the  carriage-painter — the  best  quality  of  var- 
nish for  the  exterior  of  railway  cars.  It  is  the 
custom  of  car-painters  now-a-days  to  apply  two 
coats  of  this  varnish,  instead  of  using  more  rub- 
bing varnish  coats.  A  good  washing  and  drying 
with  the  chamois  will  prepare  the  surface  for  the 
second  coat,  providing  it  be  applied  immediately 
after  washing  and  before  any  sweating  of  the  sur- 
face begins.  This  adds  greatly  to  the  durability 
of  the  work. 

Rampant.  (Her.) — A  term  used  to  describe  lions, 
tigers,  bears,  etc.,  when  represented  as  standing 
erect  on  their  hind  legs  and  pawing  the  air  with 
their  fore  feet. 

Raw  Sienna. — An  ochre,  of  a  brownish-yellow  color 
found  near  Sienna,  Italy. 

Raw  Umber. — A  natural  ochre  abounding  with  de- 
cayed  vegetable  matter,  of  the  nature  of  peat. 
It  is  a  good  drier,  holding  in  its  parts  a  large 
share  of  manganese,  and  it  will  therefore  bear  a 
larger  proportion  of  oil  than  almost  any  other 
color.  When  burned  or  roasted  it  gives  a  beauti- 
ful dark  brown  shade  of  color.  It  is  highly  es- 
teemed by  the  carriage-painter  in  making  umber 
browns,  etc. 


294 


REALGAR. 


Realgar. — Native  tersulpliide  of  arsenic,  composed 
of  70  per  cent  of  arsenic,  and  30  of  sulphur.  It  is 
of  various  tints  of  red ;  it  is  found  in  Hungary 
and  used  quite  extensively  as  a  pigment. 

Red. — The  second  and  intermediate  of  the  primary 
colors,  standing-  between  yellow  and  blue,  and  in 
like  intermediate  relation  to  white  and  black,  or 
light  and  shade.  It  is  pre-eminent  among  colors 
as  well  as  the  most  positive.  It  gives  some  de- 
gree of  warmth  to  all  colors;  but  most  to  those 
which  partake  of  yellow.  The  list  of  red  pigments 
may  be  noted  as  follows : 


Amaranda  lake. 

Rose  lake. 

Burnt  carmine. 

Rose  madder. 

Burnt  sienna. 

Rose  pink. 

Carmine. 

Royal  red. 

Carmine  lake. 

Rose  scarlet. 

Carmoisen  lake. 

Scarlet  lake. 

Chatemuc  lake. 

Solferino  lake. 

Crimson  lake. 

Turkey  red. 

Florentine  lake. 

Tuscan  red. 

Indian  red. 

Venetian  red. 

Italian  red. 

Vermilion,  American. 

Light  red. 

"  California. 

Mars  red. 

"  Chinese. 

Munich  lake. 

"  English. 

Orange  mineral. 

"  French. 

Persian  scarlet. 

"  Italian. 

Persian  red. 

"  Trieste. 

Red  lead. 

"  Zubia. 

Red  Lead  or  Minium. — A  compound  of  the  protox- 
ide and  peroxide  of  the  metal.  It  is  a  very  dis- 
tinct red  color,  requiring  but  little  preparation. 

Relief. — Painting  an  ornament  or  monogram  with 
one  color  in  different  degrees  of  strength.  As  for 
instance,  if  blue  be  employed,  the  relief  or  round- 


ROMAN  WHITE. 


295 


ness  would  be  brought  out  by  using-  different  tints 
of  blue  and  white. 

Resolvent. — A  paint  resolvent  is  really  a  prepara- 
tion for  removing  the  paint  and  varnish  from  any 
surface.  Equal  parts  of  sal  soda  and  quicklime 
make  an  effectual  resolvent  for  some  kinds  of  paint, 
notably  the  interior  painting  in  houses.  (See 
Detergent.) 

Reno's  French  Umber-— An  earth,  holding  a  large 
share  of  oxide  of  iron,  used  as  a  filling,  or  rough- 
stuff  for  carriage  bodies. 

Rinsing  Cup. — A  cup  or  can  provided  with  a 
perforated  division  or  bottom  about  one-half  its 
depth,  which  may  be  removed  for  cleaning  the 
vessel.  The  cup  is  kept  filled  with  turpentine,  and 
wiien  pencils  are  rinsed  in  it  the  color  falls  to  the 
bottom,  and  the  extra  perforated  bottom  prevents 
the  disturbance  of  the  sediment 


where  pencils  are  being  rinsed. 

Roan. — A  color  between  yellow  and 
gray. 

Roof  Brush.— A  brush  for  painting 
roofs  of  buildings  and  other  like 


work,  generally  made  as  shown,     -pm.  90.— Roof 
virtually  three  brushes  in  one,  Brush. 
and  made  to  fit  a  long  handle  so 
that  the  workman  may  stand  .up  at  his  work. 

Roman  White. — Is  of  the  purest  white  color,  but 
differs  from  French  white  in  the  warm  flesh  color 
of  the  external  surface  of  the  large  square  masses 
in  which  it  is  usually  prepared. 


296 


ROSE  COLOR. 


Rose  Color. — The  hue  or  color  of  a  rose,  made  by 
mixing*  carmine  and  white — when  this  color  is  in- 
dicated, the  red  rose  is  generally  meant. 

Rose  Pink. — A  pigment  made  by  impregnating 
common  whiting  with  cochineal  or  madder  reds ;  it 
is  extremely  fugitive. 

Rotten-Stone.— A  mineral  consisting  chiefly  of 
alumina,  with  about  ten  per  cent  of  carbonaceous 
matter,  and  a  little  silica.  It  is  found  in  New 
York  State.  It  is  brown ;  either  grayish,  reddish 
or  blackish.  It  is  soft  and  easily  pulverized,  and 
is  used  by  painters  for  polishing  or  for  rubbing 
the  surface  of  bodies.  When  a  carriage  body  has 
been  rubbed  with  pulverized  pumice-stone,  and 
washed  clean,  a  second  light  rubbing  with  rotten- 
stone  will  greatly  improve  the  work,  as  the  latter 
is  finer  and  softer  than  the  pumice,  and  every  little 
scratch  made  in  the  first  rubbing  may  be  obliter- 
ated and  a  perfectly  smooth  surface  be  secured  for 
flowing  varnish  over. 

Rough-Stuff. — A  coarse  paint,  used  to  level  over 
or  fill  the  pores  and  inequalities  of  surface  on 
carriage  bodies  and  railway  cars. 

It  is  made  from  the  following  or  similar  formu- 
las :  1,  Yellow  ochre,  sifted,  two  parts  ;  keg-lead 
(white  lead  ground  in  oil)  one  part  ;  mix  and 
grind  stiff  in  turpentine ;  add  rubbing  varnish, 
two  parts  ;  crown  coach  japan,  one  part.  Thin  as 
desired  with  turpentine.  2,  English  filling 
(q.  v.),  two  parts  ;  keg-lead,  one  part ;  turpentine, 
two  parts ;  japan  gold-size,  one  part ;  bottoms 
of  wearing-body  varnish,  one-half  part.  Pass 
through  the  mill  the  filler  and  lead,  then  mix  in 
the  other  materials.    3,  Dry  white  lead,  1^  lbs. 


ROYAL  RED. 


297 


English  filling-,  4  lbs.,  ground  separate,  in  enough 
turpentine  to  form  a  stiff  paste.  Mix  and  add 
keg-lead,  one  pound  ;  japan  gold-size,  one  pint ; 
bottoms  of  wearing-body  varnish,  J  pint;  thin 
with  turpentine.  4,  First  coat  over  priming. — 
Take  five  pounds  of  English  filling,  two  pounds 
tub-lead,  one  pint  oil,  one  pint  finishing  varnish, 
and  one-and-a-half  pints  of  japan  gold-size;  grind 
quite  fine,  thin  with  turpentine  to  use.  Second, 
third,  and  fourth  coats. — Take  five  pounds  English 
filling,  two  pounds  dry  white  lead,  one-half  pint 
of  oil,  two  pints  rubbing  varnish,  two  pints  japan 
gold -size,  thin  with  turpentine. 

Either  of  these  receipts  will  give  good  results 
if  properly  mixed.  But  it  is  considered  best  by 
those  who  aim  to  make  and  preserve  their  reputa- 
tion for  doing  good  work,  to  employ  only  the 
ready  prepared  rough-stuff,  from  the  fact  that  it 
is  mixed  from  a  formula  which  long  experience 
has  proved  the  best,  and  being  made  in  large 
quantities  by  exact  weight  or  measure  is  uniform 
to  the  last  degree. 
Royal  Red. — This  color,  so  desirable  in  decoration, 
may  be  made  so  as  to  imitate  vermilion  by  taking 
eosine  as  a  base.  The  following  separate  solutions 
must  first  be  made  :  Eosine,  three-eighths  of  an 
ounce,  dissolved  in  three  pints  of  water ;  sulphate 
of  alumina,  two  ounces,  in  one  pint  of  water ; 
acetate  of  lead,  three-and-one-half  ounces,  in 
one  pint  of  water.  The  solution  of  eosine  is  first 
added  to  that  of  sulphate  of  alumina,  and  then  the 
solution  of  acetate  of  lead  is  poured  on  both.  The 
mixture  is  to  be  filtered  and  washed,  and  when 
dry  will  yield  three-and-one-fifth  ounces  of  pure 
lead  vermilionette.    The  color  will  not  be  injured 


298 


RUBBING. 


if,  for  the  sake  of  a  larger  quantity  of  material,  a 
paste  is  made — six  ounces  of  dry  barytes,  and 
water — and  added  to  same,  together  with  a  few 
drops  of  gum  dragon  to  increase  the  brilliancy. 
Mix  well,  and  dry. 
Rubbing. — The  act  of  abraiding  or  leveling  either  a 
painted  or  a  varnished  surface  in  order  to  remove 
all  irregularities.  There  are  five  distinct  kinds  of 
rubbing  to  be  performed  in  a  carriage  paint  shop  : 

1,  Rubbing  coarse  paint  to  a  smooth  surface  by 
the  use  of  lump  pumice-stone  or  like  material; 

2,  The  rubbing  of  a  surface  with  sand-paper  to 
smoothe  it  and  prepare  for  subsequent  coats ;  3, 
Rubbing  with  curled  hair  or  moss  a  surface  of 
varnish  or  paint  to  remove  the  lustre  or  slight 
irregularities;  4,  Rubbing  with  pulverized 
pumice-stone  and  water ;  a  varnished  surface,  to 
make  it  smooth  for  receiving  more  varnish  ;  and 
5,  Rubbing  the  last  rubbed  surface  with  pulver- 
ized rotten-stone  and  water  to  remove  any  marks 
left  by  the  pumice-stone. 

Next  in  importance  to  laying  varnish  properly 
is  that  of  rubbing  it  with  pumice-stone,  prepara- 
tory to  applying  a  subsequent  coat ;  for  it  is  not 
unfrequently  the  case  that  a  body  which  has  been 
well  varnished  throughout  the  rubbing-coats 
does  not  produce  a  fine  finish,  while  on  the  other 
hand  a  body  indifferently  varnished,  when  taken 
in  hand  by  a  competent  workman,  will  be  so 
corrected  by  rubbing  as  to  give  perfect  satisfaction. 
Rubbing  is  an  art,  and  although  most  painters 
can  rub,  their  work  seldom  comes  up  to  the 
standard  of  those  who  do  nothing  but  rubbing  in 
large  factories. 

The  pumice  powder  used  for  rubbing  should  be 


RUBBING. 


299 


neither  too  fine  nor  too  coarse;  a  medium  grade  will 
be  found  best  for  ordinary  work.  This,  however, 
should  not  be  entirely  depended  upon  as  regards 
freedom  from  lumps  or  coarse  grains,  but  the 
painter  should  have  a  small  fine  sieve,  through 
which  to  pass  all  pumice  powder  before  putting  it 
upon  the  work,  for  the  least  grit  or  coarse  piece 
of  the  stone  may  injure  the  panel,  causing  much 
extra  labor  and  expense. 

The  above  precaution  is  not  the  only  one  to  be 
observed.  The  painter  must  also  secure  good 
clean  cloth  or  felt  for  the  rubber.  .  A  piece  of  an 
old  head-lining  or  cushion-top  is  not  exactly  the 
thing,  for  there  may  be  a  tack  or  some  grit  lodged 
within  it  to  scratch  the  surface.  A  clean  piece  of 
cloth  from  the  trimmer's  bench  will  last  longer, 
as  well  as  do  better  service.  We  have  always 
given  preference  to  a  piece  of  old  felt  hat,  as  a 
rub-rag,  finishing  around  the  moldings  with 
a  soft  cloth.  A  pine  stick  is  sometimes  useful  in 
rubbing  out  small  indentations  in  a  job  and  such 
places  should  always  be  rubbed,  not  slighted. 
There  is  also  quite  a  difference  in  water,  though  sel- 
dom thought  of.  Rain  water  is  preferable,  because 
it  is  soft  and  pure.  Water  from  an  old  well,  possi- 
bly containing  a  percentage  of  ammonia  or  alkali, 
from  the  stable  or  decayed  vegetable  matter,  is 
not  suitable  for  rubbing  or  washing  a  body.  If 
the  water  used  be  clean  but  hard,  a  piece  of  soda 
the  size  of  a  hickory  nut  will  improve  it,  rendering 
it  soft  and  better  adapted  for  cleaning  the  work. 
Next,  the  sponge  used  should  be  clean.  Avoid  using 
one  fresh  from  the  pail  of  soap  suds,  where  the 
painters  have  washed  their  hands;  or  one  filled 
with  turpentine  and  oil,  such  as  we  have  frequent- 


RUBBING. 


ly  seen  in  paint  shops.  Cleanliness  in  these  mat- 
ters is  of  the  utmost  importance,  without  which 
trouble  of  some  kind  is  liable  to  occur.  The 
"shammy,"  as  it  is  called,  should  be  a  real 
chamois  skin,  not  lime-cured  sheepskin.  Who 
ever  saw  a  cheap  chamois  that  did  not  deposit 
more  lint  and  dirt  on  a  panel  than  it  removed  ? 
Real  French  oil-dressed  chamois  skin  is  the  best 
and  cheapest. 

The  tools  being-  perfect,  let  us  look  at  the  work 
in  hand.  The  body  having-  been  standing  aside 
for  some  time,  has  probably  some  dust  upon  it, 
and  the  rubbing  must  not  be  proceeded  with  until 
that  is  removed.  Therefore,  with  clean  water  and 
a  clean  sponge  the  whole  bod}7  is  well  cleansed  and 
dried  off  with  the  chamois.  Then  saturating  the 
rub-rag  with  water,  dip  it  into  the  moistened 
pumice  powder  and  lay  it  on  the  panel,  bearing 
on  quite  light  at  first  to  spread  the  pumice  over  a 
part  of  the  work  before  giving  it  the  pressure 
necessary  to  cut  the  varnish  surface.  Rub  a 
panel  well  around  the  edges,  and  the  central  por- 
tion will  be  passed  over  sufficiently  in  so  doing  to 
get  its  proper  share  without  extra  care.  Rub 
lengthwise  the  panel,  and  carefully  draw  the  rag 
across  the  ends,  then  wash  off  the  pumice  and 
chamois  dry.  Do  not  put  too  much  pumice  powder 
on  the  panel  at  once,  nor  leave  the  panel  until 
the  pumice  is  quite  well  reduced  to  fine  powder ; 
the  finer  the  better  the  appearance  of  the  work. 
Be  particular  to  keep  all  parts  of  the  work  clean. 
Do  not  let  the  pumice-stone  and  water  dry  upon 
the  work  under  any  circumstances.  Go  on  from 
panel  to  panel  until  all  is  done,  washing  everything 
clean  and  keeping  it  so  as  you  proceed.    Do  not 


RUBBING  FELT. 


301 


soak  the  chamois  for  hours,  in  a  pail  of  water,  nor 
wring1  it  out  any  oftener  than  necessary  ;  a  clamp 
chamois  will  be  more  effectual  as  a  drier,  and 
hard  wringing*  will  destroy  it  sooner  than  ordin- 
ary use.  When  the  job  is  well  rubbed  with  pumice, 
and  an  extra  fine  finish  is  desired,  go  over  the 
whole  surface  with  clean  rags,  dipped  in  pulver- 
ized rotten-stone  and  water  ;  then  wash  clean,  and 
dry  off  with  the  chamois.  Then,  to  secure  a  good 
job  of  varnishing,  run  the  body  into  the  varnish- 
room  and  lay  on  the  varnish  before  there  is 
the  least  sign  of  "  sweating"  upon  the  rubbed 
surface. 

Rubbing-ln. — The  application  of  graining  color,  a 
large  brush  being  used  to  put  the  color  on,  and  well 
brushed  over,  spread,  or  rubbed  in,  before  the 
grain  marks  are  added.  The  term  is  applied  to 
the  application  of  priming  on  carriages. 

Rubbing  Felt. — A  thick  felt  material  used  for  rub- 
bing varnished  surfaces  with  pumice  powder  or 
rotten-stone.  Painters  were  at  one  time  in  the 
habit  of  cutting  their  rubbing  cloths  from  an  old 
felt  hat,  but  manufacturers  have  come  to  their  aid 
with  the  material  in  sheets,  and  one  firm,  Valen- 
tine &  Co.,  the  varnish  makers,  have  put  in  mar- 
ket a  patented  article  of  perforated  felt.  This  is 
made  in  various  thicknesses,  and  small  holes  are 
punched  through  it  at  intervals  of  say  one-half  an 
inch  over  the  whole  surface ;  these  are  intended  to 
retain  some  of  the  pumice  powder  and  thus  supply 
what  is  required  without  frequent  dipping,  and, 
besides,  to  retain  some  of  the  varnish  gum  rubbed 
off,  so  that  the  surface  of  the  rubbing  cloth  will 
not  so  soon  become  glazed  over. 


302 


RUBBING  COATS. 


Rubbing  Coats.— Those  coats  of  varnish  which  are 
put  on  to  a  surface  for  the  purpose  of  making-  a 
smooth  and  level  foundation  for  the  floiving  coat 
or  coats  of  finishing-  varnish.  It  is  seldom  the 
case  that  a  coat  of  rubbing  varnish  is  laid  as  nice- 
ly, that  is,  as  clean  and  free  from  blemish,  as  a 
coat  of  finishing-  varnish.  Painters  are  apt  to 
slight  their  under  coats,  and  put  too  much  depend- 
ence in  the  rubbing  to  bring  the  work  up  smooth. 
The  more  pains  taken  with  rubbing  coats,  the  less 
labor  required  in  rubbing,  and  the  better  the  work 
will  be. 

If  brush  marks  are  left  in  the  rubbing  coat  of 
varnish,  they  may  be  rubbed  out,  but  it  occasions 
extra  labor  to  remove  them.  It  sometimes  hap- 
pens that  rough-stuff  is  laid  on  too  thick  and 
brush  marks  are  left  in,  then  there  will  be  an  ap- 
pearance of  brush  marks  in  the  varnish  coats, 
when  in  reality  the  varnish  coats  are  smooth, 
and  perfectly  free  from  brush  marks.  The  marks 
of  the  brush  in  the  rough-stuff  will  show  in  the 
finish. 

Rubbing  coats  should  a flow  out"  as  nicely  as 
finishing  coats,  and  the}7  will  do  so  if  freely  ap- 
plied and  not  brushed  too  long. 

Ruben's  Brown. — A  rich  brown  pigment,  of  a 
warmer  and  more  ochreous  color  than  Vandyke 
brown. 

Running,  Sagging,  Crawling. — Technical  terms 
given  to  a  streaked  appearance  of  the  varnish 
coat  after  it  has  set,  and  may  be  caused  by  var- 
nishing over  an  oily  glossy  surface,  or  a  sweating 
coat  of  varnish.  It  may  be  prevented  by  washing- 
the  work,  or  by  rubbing  with  curled  hair  or  a 


RUSSET. 


303 


damp  chamois.  "  Crawling-"  may  be  caused  by 
the  perspiration  of  the  hands  upon  the  work,  and 
again,  varnish  is  liable  to  crawl  (in  the  same  man- 
ner as  water  thrown  upon  giass)  when  applied  in 
a  cold  room,  or  upon  a  cold  surface. 

Russet. — A  reddish  brown  color,  made  by  mixing 
the  primary  colors  in  the  proportion  of  two  parts 
red  and  one  each  of  blue  and  yellow. 


304 


s 

Sable. — The  fur  or  hair  of  an  animal  of  the  weasel 
species.  Although  the  name  is  synonymous  with 
black,  there  is  a  red  sable-hair  of  which  artists' 
pencils  are  formed.  The  black  sable  pencils  are 
made  of  the  hair  which  grows  at  the  extreme  end 
of  the  tail  of  the  animal,  therefore,  its  scared 
and  cost.  Striping  and  lettering  pencils  are  made 
of  this  hair,  bound  in  quills,  and  for  heavy  color 
they  are  excellent.  Some  of  the  black  sable-hair 
is  fully  two  inches  in  length,  but  the  red  sable-hair 
cannot  be  obtained  over  an  inch  in  length,  the 
latter  is  soft  yet  elastic,  and  is  generally  bound  in 
tin  with  long  cedar  handles  designed  expressly  for 
artists'  use. 

Sadden-— A  technical  term  used  by  painters  to  ex- 
press the  dulling  of  a  color.  The  opposite  of 
brighten,  as,  white  and  yellow  make  a  bright  flesh 
color,  but  a  drop  of  black  will  sadden  it. 

Sandy,  Seedy  or  Specky.— Terms  applied  to  var- 
nish when  the  surface  appears  as  if  fine  sand  or 
seed  had  been  sprinkled  over  it.  A  newly  made 
varnish,  which  has  not  had  sufficient  time  to  ripen, 
is  liable  to  make  the  work  look  "seedy,"  but  an 
experienced  workman  should  be  able  to  tell,  as 
soon  as  he  puts  his  brush  into  such  varnish,  that 
it  will  not  do  to  use  it  immediately  ;  if  set  away, 


SALMON  COLOR. 


305 


however,  and  allowed  to  mature,  it  will  in  a  few 
months  correct  this,  trouble.  To  use  varnish  from 
a  freshly  opened  can,  without  first  uncorking-  it 
and  allowing  exposure  to  the  air  during-  a  few 
hours,  that  the  ' '  spirit  of  varnish"  as  it  is  called, 
may  evaporate,  will  sometimes  cause  a  specky 
finish.  "Chilling'"  of  varnish  is  sometimes  caused 
by  keeping  the  cans  stored  in  a  cold  place  or  setting 
upon  the  floor,  the  coldest  part  of  the  room,  and 
the  effect  is  specky  varnish.  A  good  warming  on 
or  above  the  stove  will  cure  this  difficulty.  It  has 
been  said  by  chemists  that  the  specks  seen  in 
chilled  varnish  were  particles  of  drier  crystallized 
from  the  state  of  solution ;  and  this  may  have 
some  bearing  on  the  case,  but  we  have  seen  both 
varnish  and  the  purest  raw  linseed  oil  have  that 
specky  appearance  at  a  temperature  of  about  40 
degrees.  All  varnishes  deposit  more  or  less 
settlings  when  left  standing  for  a  long  time,  and  for 
this  reason,  when  five-gallon  cans  are  used,  at 
least  one-eighth  should  be  set  away  for  less  par- 
ticular purposes  when  the  other  seven-eighths 
have  been  used  out.  Specks  are  liable  to  occur  in 
varnish  that  has  skinned  over ;  these  specks  are 
simply  the  broken  skin.  Dust  or  pumice  powder 
will  also  produce  specks  in  the  work,  but  the 
greatest  of  all  troubles  in  this  respect  is  '  'chill- 
ing." The  cans  of  varnish  should  be  kept  upon  a 
shelf  in  a  warm  dry  room,  and  be  disturbed  as 
little  as  possible. 

Saffron  Color.— A  deep  yellow. 

Salmon  Color. —  A  color  made  by  mixing  five 
parts  of  white,  one  yellow,  one  umber,  and  one  of 
red. 


336 


SANDING. 


Sanding. — Fine  white  sand  is  thrown  from  a  cup 
having*  a  perforated  cover,  similar  to  a  pepper 
box,  or  blown  from  a  pair  of  bellows,  with  the 
head  of  a  water-pot  attached,  upon  fresh  paint. 
To  imitate  stone  the  color  should  be  several  shades 
darker  than  the  desired  finish,  and  the  paint 
should  be  mixed  principally  with  boiled  oil.  The 
sand  should  be  well  dried  before  use. 

Sap  Green. — The  juice  of  buckthorn-berries  ferment- 
ed for  seven  or  eight  days,  after  which  a  little 
alum  is  added  ;  and  when  evaporated  to  a  thick 
consistency  it  is  pressed  into  bladders  and  hung 
up  until  entirely  dry.  It  is  principally  used  in 
water-color. 

Sash  Tool. — A  small  round  brush  made  of  bristles, 
and  used  for  painting  sashes,  hence  its  name. 

Saxon  Green. — Carbonate  of  copper  found  in  a  nat- 
ural state  in  the  mountains  of  Saxony  and  Hun- 
gary. It  is  of  a  pale  hue,  and  is  sometimes  called 
' 1  Hungary  green." 

Scarlet  Lake. — A  pigment  of  a  beautiful  transpar- 
ent color  and  excellent  body,  working  well  in  both 
water  and  oil ;  like  other  lakes  it  dries  slowly. 
Strong  light  discolors  and  destroys  it ;  its  tints 
with  white  lead,  and  its  combinations  with  other 
colors,  are  not  permanent.  It  ought  never  to  be 
used  as  a  glazing. 

Scaffold  Bracket. — A  contrivance  for  the  use  of 

house-painters.  Fig.  91  gives  a  very  clear  idea  of 
its  construction ;  it  is  made  of  wrought-iron,  the 
lower  or  supporting  beam  branching-  out  into  two 
arms,  which  end  in  hooks  and  hang*  upon  the 
rounds  of  the  ladder.    The  upper  portion  is  a  flat 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


307 


piece  of  wrought-iron,  with  its  upper  edge  notched 
so  that  the  loop  of  the  hook  attaching"  it  to  the 
upper  round  may  be  removed  from  one  to  the  other 
and  thus  bring-  the  lower  beam  to  a  level,  what- 
ever may  be  the  slant  of  the  ladder.  All  that  is 
needed  for  its  use  is  a  couple  of  strong  ladders, 
such  as  are  found  in  the  ordinary  outfit  of  any 
painter,  and  a  strong  plank,  and  you  can  make  a 
good,  serviceable  scaffold,  suitable  for  the  use  of  a 


Fig.  91.— Scaffold  Bracket. 


painter,  carpenter,  or  mason  in  their  work  on  the 
exterior  of  a  building.  Mr.  Wm.  T.  Comstock,  No. 
6  Astor  Place,  N.  Y.,  is  the  manufacturer  of  these 
brackets,  and  further  information  may  be  obtain- 
ed from  him. 

Secondary  Colors. — The  primary  colors  in  pairs : 
as  red  and  yellow  forming  orange,  blue  and  yel- 
loiv  forming  green,  red  and  blue  forming  violet. 

Scene  Painting. — This    peculiar    department  of 
painting,  as  contradistinguished  from  all  others, 
possesses  its  own  laws,  its  own  practice,  and  its 
scientific  rules  in  the  same  manner  as  perspective. 
The  scene-painter,  in  the  first  instance,  should 


308 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


be  thoroughly  conversant  with  the  laws  of  color, 
as  it  is  only  by  that  means  that  he  can  judge  ac- 
curately of  the  appearance  the  colors  he  paints  by 
day  will  have  when  subjected  to  an  intense  artifi- 
cial light.  In  the  next  place,  it  is  indispensable 
that  he  be  well  versed  in  the  rales  of  both  linear 
and  aerial  perspective.  He  traces  by  fixed  geomet- 
rical operations,  lines  blended  or  inclined,  which 
the  spectator  at  the  proper  point  of  view  imagines 
to  be  straight  ones.  He  uses  chiefly  water-colors, 
on  account  of  their  operating  promptly  and  pre- 
senting no  glossy  surface.  There  are  two  descrip- 
tions of  lights  to  be  considered  in  scene  painting — 
one  the  light  which  the  painter  supposes  to  illu- 
minate his  picture,  and  the  other  that  which  actu- 
ally does  light  up  the  canvas,  such  as  head,  foot 
and  side  lights ;  and  the  position  and  power  of 
these  must  be  carefully  studied  by  the  artist  be- 
fore he  begins  work. 

Generally  the  scenes  should  have  a  tone  favora- 
ble to  every  color  of  the  dress.  If,  however,  the 
scene-painter  is  obliged  to  depart  from  so  favora- 
ble an  undecided  tone,  and  to  represent  a  red  or 
yellow  chamber,  a  white  tent,  or  a  green  garden, 
the  actors  should  be  clever  enough  to  avoid  sim- 
ilar colors  in  their  dresses.  If  an  actor  in  red  uni- 
form enters  a  red  room,  the  upper  part  of  his  body 
vanishes,  and  only  his  legs  are  seen  ;  if  with  the 
same  dress  he  enters  a  green  garden,  his  legs  van- 
ish, and  the  upper  part  of  his  body  is  conspicuous. 
Thus  an  actor  in  a  white  coat  and  dark  trowsers, 
will  have  the  upper  part  of  his  body  vanish  in  a 
white  tent  while  his  legs  will  disappear  against  a 
dark  background.  Even  when  the  scene  painter 
is  obliged  to  have  a  red  or  yellow  chamber,  or  a 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


309 


green  garden  or  wood,  these  colors  should  be 
somewhat  faint  and  hazy,  that  every  dress  in  the 
foreground  may  be  relieved  and  have  the  proper 
effect. 

We  will  now  describe  in  detail  the  various  imple- 
ments, brushes,  and  materials  employed  in  scene 
painting,  for  the  artist  must  have  all  these  at  hand, 
and  be  fully  equipped  before  he  can  think  of  com- 
mencing work.  The  brashes,  being  one  of  the  most 
important  items,  will  first  receive  attention. 

Fig.  92  is  an  oval  ground  brush.  Numbers  re- 
quired— two  No.  |,  one  No.  j-,  one  No.  1. 

Fig.  93  is  a  scene-painter's  tool.  These  are  sim- 
ilar to  the  ordinal  sash  tools  ;  the  hairs,  however, 
are  longer,  being  from  4  to  4|  inches  in  length. 
One  each  of  Nos.  8,  10  and  12.  Two  each  Nos.  1, 
2,  4  and  6. 

Fig.  94  is  a  flat  hog-hair  brush.  One  each,  1,  2, 
4,  6,  8,  10,  12,  14  and  16. 

Fig.  95  is  a  round  hog-hair  brush.  One  each, 
Nos.  1,  2,  4,  6,  8,  10  and  12. 

Fig.  96  is  a  bevelled  lining  fitch.  These  are 
used  for  ruling  lines  with  the  straight-edge,  and 
will  be  found  to  do  the  work  better  than  any  other 
sort.    Two  each  \  inch,  f  inch,  1  inch. 

Quilled  or  Fine  Tools  are  used  also  by  most  scene- 
painters.  They  are  small  sash  tools,  but  bound  in 
quill,  and  will  do  well  for  fine  work,  one  each  of 
every  other  number  will  be  found  sufficient. 

Figs.  97  and  98  are  two  or  one-knot  ground  dis- 
temper brushes  for  priming  the  canvas  and  laying* 
in  large  masses  of  color. 

Stencil  Brushes. — One  or  two  of  these  will  be  re- 
quired when  painting  interiors  or  prosceniums. 


310 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


Fig.  92.— Pound        Fig.  93.— No.  12      Fig.  94.— No.  12 
Brush.  Scene-Painter's      Flag  Hog-Hair 

Tool.  Liner. 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


311 


rTVl 


Fig.  95.— No.  Fig.  96.— No. 8  Fig.    98.— Another 

12  Round  French  Hog-  Form  of  Double 

French  Hair   Liner  Brush. 

Tool.  (bevelled). 


312 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


One  No.  4,  one  No.  12,  and  one  No.  24,  will  perhaps 
be  found  handy. 

This  concludes  the  brushes. 

Fig-.  99  is  a  12-inch  palette  knife  used  for  manip- 
ulating- the  colors  with. 


Fig.  99.— Palette  Knife. 


Fig.  100.— Size  Kettle.     Fig.  101.—        Fig.  102.— Earthen- 
Ladle,  ware  Pan  for  Soak- 
ing Gilder's  Whit; 


ing. 


Fig.  103.— Paint  Pot.         Fig.  104.— Paint  Tin. 


Fig.  100  is  an  ordinary  tin  kettle  used  for  melting 
the  size  in. 

Fig.  101  is  a  tin  ladle  which  is  used  for  taking 
size  out  of  the  kettle. 

Fig.  102  is  an  earthenware  pan  for  soaking- 
whiting-. 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


313 


Fig*.  103  an  earthenware  pot,  and  Fig.  104  a  tin 
saucepan  for  holding-  and  warming-  colors. 

Fig.  105  is  an  easel,  about  5  feet  high  for  holding 
the  model  or  design  of  scene  about  to  be  painted. 

Figs.  106  and  107  are  a  stone  and  muller,  the 
former  a  marble  slab,  about  2  feet  square,  used  for 
grinding  colors  on.    It  should  be  mounted  on 


for  Tracing  Outlines. 

wood  and  have  ledges  round  three  sides  to  prevent 
colors  running  off.  In  some  painting  rooms  mills 
are  used  for  grinding  colors. 

Fig.  108  is  charcoal  for  "  drawing  in"  scene  on 
canvas.  It  is  generally  tied  firmly  on  a  stick  to 
give  a  larger  range  and  freedom  to  the  hand. 

Fig.  109  A  is  a  chalk  line  on  reel,  and  B  a 
flogger.  The  latter  is  used  for  dusting  away  char- 
coal after  a  sketch  is  completed.  It  is  made  with 
several  odd  strips  of  canvas,  2  feet  in  length, 


Fig.  108.— Charcoal  and  Stick 


Fig.  107.— Muller. 


314  SCENE  PAINTING. 


bound  tightly  on  to  an  old  piece  of  broom-handle, 
as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

Fig-.  110  is  a  wooden  palette,  4  feet  by  2-J-  feet.  It 
should  have  a  ledge  3  inches  high  round  three 
sides.  On  the  left  hand  and  at  the  back  are 
eighteen  to  twenty  divisions  or  compartments  for 
holding  the  different  colors  (see sketch).  On  the 
right  hand  generally  stand  the  pots  or  cans,  con- 
taining the  weak  and  strong  size.  The  palette 
must  have  three  good  coats  of  wThite  oil  paint,  and 
be  well  sand-papered.    The  brushes  are  generally 


Fig.  109.— Chalk  Line  (A)    Fig.  110.— Sketch  showing 
and  Flogger  (B).  form  of  Scene-Painter's 

Palette. 


laid  out  on  the  right  of  palette  when  being  used, 
to  be  easy  of  access. 
Canvas. — This  is  sold  in  two  widths  and  several 
qualities.  In  width  it  is  36  inches  and  72  inches ; 
the  latter  is  the  best,  as  there  are  not  so  many 
seams  required.  Unbleached  muslin  may  be  used 
for  small  scenes,  and  may  be  had  in  all  widths  up 
to  60  inches.  Gold,  silver,  and  colored  foils, 
Dutch  metal,  frosting,  spangles,  etc.,  are  employ- 
ed for  pantomine  and  burlesque  scenery,  and 
will  be  described  later  on.  The  following  articles 
will,  possibly,  complete  our  list  of  requisites,  viz., 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


315 


a  sponge,  a  plumb-bob  and  line,  a  two-foot  rule,  a 
pair  of  large  shears,  and  a  pair  of  wooden  com- 
passes. 

Colors. — Next  in  importance  come  the  colors,  and 
they  will  be  named  in  the  order  in  which  it  is  con- 
venient to  place  them  on  the  palette. 

Whiting. — The  best  gilder's  whiting  only  should 
be  used,  as  it  lasts  longer,  and  contains  less  lime 
than  the  common  article  of  domestic  use.  It  is 
generally  sold  in  lumps,  and  when  required  for 
painting  should  be  broken  up  and  put  in  the  earth- 
en pan,  Fig.  102.  Enough  water  must  be  added 
to  make  a  stiff  paste,  care  being  taken  not  to  make 
it  a  liquid.  The  last  remark  applies  to  all  colors 
when  put  into  the  stock-pots  ready  for  use.  It  is 
used  to  mix  with  most  of  the  colors  to  reduce  them, 
and  also  to  give  them  greater  covering  power. 
Mixed  with  size,  it  is  known  as  priming  for  cover- 
ing new  canvas  with.  The  pan  containing  the 
whiting  should  stand  on  the  table  to  the  left  of  the 
palette. 

1.  Flake  White. — A  fine  solid  white,  apt  to  turn 
a  brownish  color  in  the  course  of  time.  It  is  used 
for  extra  brightness,  and  where  the  highest  lights 
are  required.  It  is  sold  in  lumps,  and  can  be 
crushed  with  the  palette-knife  to  be  fit  for  use.  _ 

2.  Lemon  Chrome.  —  A  brilliant  light  yellow, 
largely  used  in  scene-painting.  It  is  sold  in  soft 
lumps,  and  only  requires  to  be  crushed  in  water  as 
above. 

3.  Orange  Chrome. — A  rich  color  of  the  same  na- 
ture as  the  former,  but  of  a  much  darker  shade. 

4.  Golden  or  Yellow  Ochre.  —  This  is  a  most 
useful  and  inexpensive  color,  and  will  often  be  re- 


316 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


quired.  It  is  sold  in  powder,  and  only  requires 
the  addition  of  water  to  be  ready  for  use. 

5.  Raw  Sienna.  —  A  rich  golden  yellow,  and  is 
chiefly  used  for  glazing-.  It  is  sold  in  hard  lumps, 
but  had  better  be  procured,  ready  ground,  in  a 
state  of  a  pulp. 

6.  Burnt  Sienna. — A  rich  glazing  color.  A  small 
quantity  of  this  should  be  kept  in  oil  ready  for 
use.  It  will  be  required  for  painting  and  shading 
on  gold  foil  or  gold  leaf. 

7.  Raw  Umber.— A  color  often  required,  sold  in 
dry  powder,  or  in  pulp. 

8.  Burnt  Umber.— A  useful  brown,  used  for  glaz- 
ing purposes. 

9.  Vandyke  Brown.  —  A  rich  dark  brown,  often 
used,  and  a  good  glazing  color.  Sold,  ready 
ground,  in  water. 

10.  Venetian  Red.— A  cheap  and  useful  color,  often 
in  request,  and  has  great  covering  power.  Sold 
in  powder,  and  requires  no  grinding. 

11.  Vermilion. — A  bright  red  in  powder,  of  which 
there  are  several  grades  (q.  v.)  requires  no  grind- 
ing. 

12.  Rose  Pink. — One  of  the  most  useful  colors  used 
in  scene  painting,  and  very  cheap.  It  will  be  con- 
tinually required,  and  is  sold  in  soft  lumps.  Can 
be  ground  on  the  slab  with  the  palette-knife  or 
muller. 

13.  Damp  Lake. — A  deep  crimson,  and  often  re- 
quired. It  is  sold  in  damp  state,  and  should  al- 
ways be  kept  moist.  It  is  one  of  the  best  of  glaz- 
ing colors. 

14.  Brown  Lake. — A  rich  claret-colored  brown, 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


317 


sold  in  pulp,  same  as  the  last.  It  is  rather  expen- 
sive so  should  be  used  sparingly. 

15.  Ultramarine.— A  fine  bright  blue,  sold  in  pow- 
der, and  only  requires  to  be  plunged  in  water  for 
use. 

16.  Indigo. — A  deep,  dark  blue,  often  required,  and 
a  good  glazing  color.  Indigo  is  extremely  hard  to 
grind — it  has  first  to  be  soaked  for  several  hours 
in  boiling  water,  and  then  carefully  ground  with 
the  muller.  It  had  better  be  procured  ready 
ground  when  possible. 

17.  Dark  Brunswick  Green.— A  cheap  and  useful 
green,  but  not  of  lasting  duration,  of  great  bright- 
ness. For  extra  good  work,  such  as  the  painting 
of  prosceniums  and  act  drops,  the  green  lakes, 
afterwards  mentioned,  should  be  used.  Sold  in 
powder,  and  requires  no  grinding. 

18.  Light  Brunswick  Green.— Similar  to  the  pre- 
vious color,  but  several  shades  lighter. 

19.  Prussian  Blue. — A  beautiful,  rich  and  power- 
ful blue,  now  largely  used  by  leading  artists.  Is 
very  hard  and  requires  much  grinding,  so  had  best 
be  obtained  in  pulp. 

20.  Drop,  Ivory,  or  Blue-Black.— The  first  or  the 
last  of  these  three  blacks  will  do  for  ordinary  work, 
but  for  an y thing  particular  ivor37-black  is  recom- 
mended.   Sold  in  soft  lumps,  and  easy  to  grind. 

If  there  are  more  divisions  made  to  the  palette, 
the  following  colors  may  be  added  with  considera- 
ble advantage : 
Dark  Medium  and  Light  Green  Lakes.— A  most 
useful  green,  veiy  powerful  and  lasting,  and  of 
great  richness.  It  is  rather  expensive,  and  is  sold 
in  jars  in  a  damp  or  pulpy  state. 


318 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


Mauve  Paste. — The  same  color  as  its  name  implies, 
and  useful  for  painting-  draperies  and  costumes  in 
figure  painting1. 

Dutch  Pink. — A  most  useful  yellow  in  distemper 
painting",  and  mixes  well  with  any  color.  It  is 
much  used  for  the  high  lights  in  foliage  painting-, 
and  is  so  often  required  that  it  always  finds  a 
place  on  the  palette.  It  mixes  well  with  greens 
to  get  different  tints  and  shades. 

There  are  certain  other  colors  that  will  often  be 
in  request,  and  it  may  he  well  to  name  them. 

Crimson  Lake,  Scarlet  Lake  and  Yellow  Lake. 

— Very  rich  colors,  used  mostly  for  draperies,  and 

sold  in  pulp,  price  very  high. 
Carnation  Paste. — A  useful  color  for  draperies, 

and  much  used  for  that  purpose.    It  is  cheaper 

than  lake. 

Carmine  Paste. — A  rich  crimson,  used  for  draper- 
ies and  glazing-.  It  is  very  dear,  and  does  not 
keep  long-. 

Blue  Verditer. — A  useful  blue  for  nig-ht  skies  and 
scenes.    Sold  in  powder,  but  of  a  sandy  nature. 

Azure  Blue. — A  beautiful  lig-ht  blue,  very  brig-ht 
and  delicate,  used  for  painting  a  certain  class  of 
skies,  such  as  a  cloudless  summer  sky  as  seen  in 
Italy  or  Spain. 

Damp  Blue. — A  cheap  common  blue  ;  can  be  used 
for  common  work  not  intended  to  stand  long. 

Emerald  Green. — A  rich,  bright  green,  not  often 
required. 

Bronze  Green. — A  dark  sage  green,  sold  in  pow- 
*  der. 

Dark  Brown  Ochre. — A  cheap  and  useful  brown; 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


319 


used  for  foregrounds  and  rockwork.  Sold  in  pow- 
der. 

Orange  Red. — A  useful  color,  and  not  dear.  Can 
be  often  used  for  heightening  the  effect  in  several 
descriptions  of  scenes. 

Red  Lead. — The  ordinary  red  lead,  can  be  used  in 
place  of  vermilion  on  much  work. 

Chinese  Red. — A  deep  red,  may  be  used  in  place  of 
many  of  the  lakes. 

Indian  Red. — Similar  to  Venetian  red,  but  darker. 

Salin  Red. — A  powder  of  a  light  pink  or  red  color. 

Crimson  Red. — Another  red,  sold  in  powder. 

Spanish  Brown. — A  good  and  useful  red  brown,  of 
an  earthy  nature.  It  has  wonderful  covering- 
powers,  is  very  cheap  in  powder. 

There  are  many  others  that  might  be  mentioned 
but  space  will  not  permit.  Such  as,  Schweinfurt- 
er  green,  Neuwieder  green,  silver  white,  Bremen 
blue,  Solferino,  Munich  lake,  Florentine  lake, 
Vienna  lake,  and  Cobalt  blue,  which  is  a  very 
superior  blue  for  skies. 

Purchasing  Colors. — The  reader  will  perhaps  be 
pleased  to  have  some  idea  as  to  what  colors  he 
should  obtain  to  begin  with,  and  the  quantity  of 
each  he  should  order. 

Seven  pounds  each  of  flake  white,  Dutch  pink, 
yellow  and  brown  ochre,  orange-lead,  Venetian 
red,  rose  pink,  Brunswick  greens  (dark,  medium 
and  light),  drop  black,  German  ultramarine, 
celestial  blue  and  damp  lake.  Four  pounds  each 
indigo,  orange  chrome,  yellow  chrome,  vermil- 
ion and  Vandyke  brown. 

Three  pounds  each  Prussian  blue,  burnt  and  raw 
siennas,  burnt  and  raw  umbers  and  brown  lake. 


320 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


One  pound  each  azure  blue,  Chinese  red,  crim- 
son lake,  carnation  paste,  mauve  paste,  dark  and 
light  green  lakes. 

Fourteen  pounds  of  gilder's  whiting  and  a  firkin 
of  best  double  size. 

The  regular  painting-room  in  our  large  theatres 
is  in  most  cases  situated  in  the  "  flies" — i.  e.,  over 
the  stage.  When  the  scenes  are  painted  in  such  a 
place  the  framework  on  which  the  canvas  is  tacked 
for  painting  is  made  to  sink  through  a  slot  or 
opening  in  the  floor  of  the  paint-loft  and  is  gradu- 
ally wound  up  as  the  artist  proceeds  with  his 
work.  In  cases  where  the  painting  is  done  on  a 
level  with  the  stage  and  a  sufficient  depth  below 
not  allowing  the  frame  to  sink  low  enough,  re- 
course is  made  to  a  kind  of  scaffolding  technically 
termed  the  "painting"  bridge,"  the  painting  frame 
in  this  instance  being  a  fixture  ;  these  various  ap- 
pliances we  will  now  describe. 
Movable  Painting  Frames. — In  order  that  the 
scene-painter  may  execute  his  work  in  a  rapid  and 
masterly  manner,  he  should  be  able  to  reach  any 
portion  of  his  scene  at  will,  and  the  quickest  way  of 
doing  this  is  by  having  an  opening  in  the  floor  as 
previously  described.  Fig.  Ill  is  an  illustration  of 
the  manner  in  which  a  large  painting  frame  of 
this  description  is  worked  ;  A,  is  the  purchase 
wheel ;  B,  the  spindle  ;  C,  the  counterweight  line  ; 
D,  counterweight,  which  balances  weight  of 
frame  ;  E,  lines  attached  to  frame  for  raising  and 
lowering  it  and  which  wind  on  and  off  spindle  or 
axle  of  purchase  wheel ;  F,  the  line  from  purchase 
wheel  to  windlass  ;  G,  the  windlass  ;  H,  frame  for 
canvas.    Fig.  112  is  a  section  of  the  same. 

For  smaller  and  lighter  scenes,  we  show  a  modi- 


321 


322 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


fication  of  the  above,  which  is  worked  by  counter- 
weights only,  after  the  manner  of  a  window-sash, 
the  sketch  (Fig.  113)  explains  everything. 
The  Painting  Bridge.— One  of  the  simplest  forms 
of  painting  is  shown  in  Fig.  114.  It  works  on 
wheels  and  can  be  constructed  to  take  to  pieces  by 
using  bed  screws  instead  of  nails.  A  couple  of 
stout  planks  are  required— one  for  the  artist  to 
stand  on,  the  other  to  hold  palettes,  colors,  etc. 
A  still  more  simple  kind  of  bridge  is  that  shown  in 
Fig.  115,  and  consists  of  a  couple  of  trestles  or  lad- 
ders, and  some  two-inch  planks.  These  are  easily 
procurable. 

It  may  not  be  out  of  place  to  explain  a  few  of 
the  terms  and  phrases  made  use  of  by  the  profes- 
sion inside  a  theatre,  as  many  of  these  words  will 
no  doubt  be  used  in  latter  paragraphs. 
Act  Drop.— A  picture,  or  single  painted  surface  of 
canvas,  let  down  by  way  of  a  blind  or  curtain  be- 
tween the  acts,  so  as  to  close  up  the  proscenium 
opening. 

Borders.— Also  known  as  "  hanging  scenes"  and 
"  soffits."  Borders  are  of  three  descriptions  ;  in- 
terior, sky  and  foliage  borders.  The  interiors  are 
painted  to  imitate  ceilings  or  roofs  of  rooms,  huts, 
etc.,  the  other  two  are  used  for  exterior  scenes. 
They  are  merely  strips  of  painted  canvas  hung 
across  the  top  of  the  stage  to  screen  the  space 
above. 

Box  Scenes.— Instead  of  the  usual  wings  ranged 
one  behind  the  other,  as  in  the  old  method,  there 
is  a  series  of  "flats"  on  each  side,  extending  from 
the  proscenium  wing  up  to  the  back.  The  back 
part  of  the  stage  is  likewise  enclosed  in  this  man- 


323 


324 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


ner ;  the  stage  is  thus  completely  enclosed  on  all 
three  sides,  the  doors,  windows,  etc.,  being-  placed 
where  required.  By  this  means  a  more  perfect 
representation  of  a  room  can  be  obtained,  than 
where  wings  are  employed.  Known,  also,  as  "  en- 
closed chamber  scenes."  Such  a  scene  as  this,  of 
course,  represents  the  sides  and  further  end  of  the 
room. 


Fig.  115. — Painting  Bridge  of  Boards  supported  on 
Trestles. 

Backing. — A  small  "  cloth  "  or  piece  of  canvas 
placed  behind  where  an  opening-  occurs  in  the 
scenery  at  the  back,  such  as  French  windows, 
double  or  folding-  doors,  etc.  This  may  be  made 
to  represent  a  conservatory,  a  street,  veranda,  or 
open  country.  If  for  interiors,  a  hall  or  side  room 
may  be  shown.  When  lattice  windows  are  used, 
a  g-ood  distant  view  of  the  country  is  very  effec- 
tive, if  strong-ly  lighted  by  ground  lights. 

Built  Scenery. — Scenes  that  are  built  out  on  the 
stage,  mostly  of  wood,  and  decorated  by  the  artist 
to  form  part  of  his  picture.  They  are  generally 
strongly  made.  A  bridge  or  mountain-path  on 
which  a  number  of  actors  could  walk  or  stand  at 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


325 


the  same  time,  illustrates  our  meaning.  The 
balcony  in  "Romeo  and  Juliet  "  is  a  small  piece 
of  scenery  of  this  description. 

Cloths. — These  are  the  scenes  which  work  up  and 
down  on  rollers  from  the  bottom,  and  known 
generally  as  "  back  scenes  "  or  "  rolling  scenes"  ; 
in  the  paint-loft  they  are  invariably  called 
"cloths."  The  scene  at  the  extreme  back  is 
termed  the  "  back  cloth,"  or  "  drop  scenes." 

Cut  Cloths.— Scenes  with  portions  cut  out  after 
being  painted  on  the  frame.  In  exteriors  they 
consist  of  woods,  with  the  spaces  left  between  the 
trunks  of  trees  and  branches  cut  away.  The 
foliage  cut  in  places,  which  makes  the  scene  very 
effective.  Ruins,  arches,  etc.,  are  also  treated  in 
this  way. 

Distemper  or  Tempera. — All  scene  painting  is  ex- 
ecuted in  distemper — that  is,  with  colors  mixed  up 
with  size  and  water. 

Flats. — Scenes,  the  canvas  for  which  is  strained 
upon  framing ;  they  are  similar  to  side  wings, 
but  much  larger. 

Sliding  Flats  are  two  broad  frames,  each 
half  the  width  of  the  stage.  They  are  worked  on 
from  either  side,  meeting  each  other  and  uniting 
in  the  centre.  These  are  used  when  a  practicable 
door  or  window  is  required  in  a  scene,  which  has 
closed  in  on  the  back  scene,  and  where  for  this 
reason,  a  drop  scene  is  of  no  use.  They  can  be 
used  on  any  part  of  the  stage,  but  are  generally 
pushed  on  from  the  second  entrance.  Flats  can  of 
course  be  used  also  as  back  scenes  ;  in  fact,  inte- 
riors consist  mainly  of  these.  Interiors  are  sel- 
dom painted  on  "  cloths  "  excepting  for  corridors, 


326 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


passages,  etc.,  where  doors  and  windows  are  not 
required.  Pantomine  and  burlesque  interiors, 
such  as  kitchens,  with  all  the  different  utensils 
painted  in,  attics  and  caves,  are,  as  a  rule,  painted 
on  cloths. 

Open  Flats. — Are  similar  to  cut  cloths,  as  they 
serve  the  same  purpose.  They  are  scenes  cut  out 
in  places  so  that  the  actors  can  pass  through 
them,  as  in  groves,  caves  forests,  and  open 
arches. 

Flies. — The  galleries  running  along  each  side  of  the 
stage,  above  the  proscenium  opening  and  where 
all  drops  are  fixed  and  worked  for  lowering  or 
raising  drop  scenes. 

Fan  Pieces. — Used  in  transformation  scenes,  and 
work  like  a  fan,  suddenly  collapsing  and  discover- 
ing a  fairy,  etc. 

Ground  Pieces. — Low  pieces  of  profile  running 
across  the  stage  on  the  floor,  used  to  mask  a  row 
of  lights. 

Glazing. — Going  over  work  already  painted  with 
transparent  colors  diluted  with  strong  size. 

"  Laying  In." — This  term  is  given  to  the  first  paint- 
ing, and  consists  of  putting  in  the  middle  or  half 
tints  of  the  picture,  using  broad  masses  of  color 
of  the  required  shades.  Over  this  the  high  lights 
and  shades  are  afterwards  put  in. 

Marking  Up. — Marking  the  outlines  bolder,  espe- 
cially in  the  foreground,  and  should  be  done  with 
strong  size  mixed  with  the  proper  pigments. 

Mordant. — A  cement  used  in  fixing  Dutch  metal  to 
the  scenes. 

Profile-. — Thin  boards  covered  with  a  particular 
kind  of  canvas  to  prevent  them  from  splitting. 


SCENE  PAINTING.  327 

The  artist  marks  out  the  outlines,  and  the  carpen- 
ter saws  them  out. 

Practicable  Scenes. — Those  which  contains  doors, 
windows,  fire-places,  cupboards,  etc.,  capable  of 
being"  worked  and  used.  Any  piece  of  scenery, 
such  as  coppers,  bridges,  porches,  gates,  stiles, 
etc.,  made  sufficiently  strong  to  be  used  by  the 
actor,  is  known  by  the  term  "practicable." 

Priming. — A  composition  of  double  size  and  gilder's 
whiting,  a  coating  of  which  is  applied  to  the  can- 
vas in  a  warm  state.  Also  known  as  "  sheep- 
skin." 

Raking  Piece.  —  Similar  to  a  set-piece.  Small 
pieces  of  canvas  and  profile  painted  to  imitate 
rocks,  mossy  slopes,  banks,  etc.,  and  set  on  one 
side  of  the  stage.  They  are  sometimes  made  for 
the  actor  to  lie  on. 

Rises  and  Sinks. — The  scenes  in  this  case  are  di- 
vided, but  not  like  a  pair  of  flats.  They  part 
horizontally — one  part  rising  into  the  flies,  and 
the  other  part  sinking  through  the  stage  to  the 
mazarine  below. 

Sizing. — New  canvas  is  always  given  a  coat  of 
strong  size  as  soon  as  strained.  This  and  the 
"priming"  is  generally  done  by  the  laborer,  hence 
he  is  styled  the  "  first  artist"  in  the  theatre. 

Set  Pieces. — Scenes  placed  obliquely  on  one  side  of 
the  stage  when  it  is  required  to  show  a  cottage, 
corner  of  a  house,  or  porch.  They  are  also  placed 
across  the  stage,  to  form  palings,  low  walls,  side 
of  ship,  bridges,  etc. 

Set  Scenes. — These  are  very  elaborate.  Instead  of 
the  whole  picture  being  painted  on  the  back  drop 
the  distance  only  is  put  in,  middle  distance  and 


328 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


foreground  being-  composed  of  set  pieces,  raking- 
pieces,  and  ground  rows,  with  strong  lights  be- 
hind each.  It  requires  great  skill  and  experience 
to  paint  and  arrange  a  set  scene. 

Scruto. — A  sort  of  hinge,  made  by  cutting  through 
a  piece  of  profile  wood  without  cutting  the  canvas. 

Trick  Scenes. — Scenes  which  can  be  instantly 
changed,  as  where  ruins  change  to  a  lighted 
palace,  before  the  eyes  of  the  audience. 

Tableau  Curtains.  —  Used  in  place  of  act-drop, 
they  open  in  the  centre  and  rise  in  graceful  folds 
to  each  side  and  top  of  the  proscenium. 

Thin  Coloring. — A  process  employed  to  give  the 
effect  of  greater  distance  to  any  part  of  the  scene, 
to  impart  a  hazy  appearance  to  a  picture. 

Wings,  or  Side  Scenes. — These  are  merely  scenes 
placed  obliquely  behind  each  other,  on  each  side 
of  the  stage,  to  hide  the  view  behind,  and  cover 
the  entrances  and  exits  of  the  actors. 

Mixing  Colors. — The  most  difficult  feature  of 
painting  in  distemper  is,  that  the  colors  dry  so 
much  lighter  than  they  are  when  first  put  on,  and 
many  of  them  have,  by  gaslight,  an  entirely 
different  appearance  than  they  have  in  the  day- 
time. Most  colors  dry  several  shades  lighter  than 
they  are  when  wet  ;  and,  worse  still,  they  do  not 
all  dry  lighter  in  the  same  proportion  ;  so  that 
any  person  new  to  the  work  cannot  estimate  the 
particular  shade  of  his  paint  when  first  laid  on. 
It  is,  therefore,  advisable  for  the  artist  to  try  his 
colors  on  a  small  scale  at  first,  and  dry  them  in 
front  of  the  fire. 

To  render  the  colors  opaque,  a  certain  propor- 
tion of  whiting  or  flake  white  is  always  mixed  up 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


329 


with  them  according"  to  the  shade  desired. 
Transparent  and  glazing-  colors  being-  an  excep- 
tion to  this  rule — no  whiting  is  used  with  them. 
The  strength  of  the  size  also  makes  a  vast  differ- 
ence; very  strong  size  darkens.  As  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  colors  at  night  :  French  ultramarine, 
a  bright  blue  by  daylight,  is  a  muddy  purple  by 
gaslight,  and  therefore  unfit  for  distant  tints  or 
for  brig-htness.  Verditer  blue,  Cobalt  blue, 
Celestial  blue  are  best.  Yellow  is  much  lighter 
by  gaslight,  and  rose  pink  loses  its  brightness. 
The  colors  being  all  mixed  with  water  to  a  pulpy 
state  are  now  put  into  the  compartments  on  the 
palette,  putting-  no  more  on  the  palette  than  is  re- 
quired for  immediate  use.  In  scene  painting 
many  of  the  different  shades  are  only  obtained  by 
mixing  one  color  with  the  other  while  on  the 
palette.  The  way  to  do  this  is  as  follows  :  Sup- 
pose we  wanted  a  purple,  the  artist  wrould  take  up 
a  clean  brush  and  dip  it  in  the  size-can  he  would 
then  transfer  it  quickly  to  the  compartment  on  the 
palette  containing  the  rose  pink,  and  having  got  a 
good  brushful  of  this  color,  would  spread  it  on  the 
palette,  he  would  then  dip  the  brush  in  the  ultra- 
marine and  mix  this  also  with  the  rose  pink,  and 
to  get  it  a  shade  or  two  lighter  he  would  dip  the 
brush  in  the  whiting  pan.  Tints  composed  of 
three  or  four  colors  can  be  rapidly  compounded  in 
this  way,  adding  more  size  as  often  as  required  to 
render  them  workable.  Where  a  lot  of  color  is 
required,  as  for  skies,  etc.,  the  colors  are  mixed  in 
pots,  and  to  get  the  various  tints  the  painter  dips 
his  brush  first  in  one  pot  and  then  in  another,  and 
in  this  way  puts  in  a  sky  of  perhaps  a  dozen 
different  hues. 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


For  f  oliage,  a  quiet  general  tint  may  be  obtained 
by  mixing-  Dutch  pink  with  black,  indigo  with 
blue  verditer.  Light  ochre  with  green  lake  gives 
a  rich  green,  which  may  be  changed  to  a  cool  one 
037-  the  addition  of  indig-o.  For  sunset  skies  mix 
in  separate  pots  the  following- :  verditer  and  indi- 
g-o ;  verditer  and  damp  lake ;  damp  lake  and 
orang-e  chrome.  For  clouds,  mix  verditer  and 
orang-e  red,  or  Venetian  red  and  azure  blue  ;  rose 
pink  and  azure  blue.  For  cold  gray  clouds  add  a 
little  black.  For  lig-hts  in  clouds,  mix  yellow 
ochre  and  rose  pink,  or  yellow  ochre  and  orange 
red.  For  distant  foliage  mix  verditer  and  rose 
pink,  or  use  Dutch  pink  alone.  For  the  sea, 
Dutch  pink,  verditer,  indigo,  raw  sienna,  azure 
blue  and  emerald  green  will  be  found  most  useful. 
For  rocks  some  of  the  following  tints  will  be  use- 
ful :  indigo,  burnt  sienna  and  rose  pink  ;  emerald 
green  and  black  ;  Vandyke  brown  and  ultrama- 
rine; indigo,  rose  pink,  and  ochre.  Black  and 
Venetian  red  make  a  useful  gray.  For  gold 
colors  mix  brown  ochre  and  Dutch  pink ;  or  Dutch 
pink  and  sienna  or  Vandyke  brown  ;  these  for  lay- 
ing in.  For  the  lights  use  flake  white  and  lemon 
chrome,  orange  and  yellow  chrome,  chrome  and 
Dutch  pink.  Purple  and  mauve  look  fresh  by  day, 
but  are  dirty  and  muddy  by  gaslight.  For  moon- 
light skies  a  good  tint  is  verditer  and  indigo 
mixed.  For  clouds  add  black  and  more  indigo. 
Water  is  generally  the  color  of  the  sky  and 
the  objects  that  are  reflected  therein,  such  as  trees, 
banks  and  rushes.  For  branches  and  trunks  of 
trees,  use  indigo,  lake  and  yellow  ochre  ;  burnt 
sienna  and  ultramarine ;  Dutch  pink,  burnt  sien- 
na, and  indigo.    For  grass,  use  pure  greens,  mix- 


SCENE  PAINTING. 


331 


ing  more  or  less  yellow  chrome  for  high  lights. 
In  painting-  dead  leaves  use  chrome  and  burnt 
sienna.  For  stone  buildings,  mix  .yellow  ochre, 
umber,  and  indigo,  or  ochre,  celestial  blue  and 
red.  For  bricks,  Venetian  red  ;  and  for  shadows 
add  ultramarine.  Where  fire  is  reflected  use 
orange  lead. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  in  mixing  tints— for 
some  colors  like  Prussian  blue,  are  so  strong  that 
a  very  little  will  suffice,  so  if  used  without  due 
thought  it  becomes  necessary  to  add  more  of  the 
other  colors. 


Fig.  116.— Charcoal  Stove      Fig.  117.— Gas  Stove, 
for  Warming  Colors,  Etc. 

Some  painters  mix  molasses  or  golden  syrup 
with  their  size,  which  makes  the  colors  work  more 
freely.  In  painting  a  scene  on  a  new  "cloth"  the 
first  thing  to  be  done,  after  the  canvas  is  strained, 
is  to  size  it  all  over.  This  is  done  with  strong  size, 
i.  e.,  size  (such  as  purchased  ready  mixed)  melted 
in  a  kettle  with  just  water  enough  to  prevent 
burning. 

Working  Size  consists  of  one  part  size  to  four 
parts  of  water,  the  size  being  first  melted  or 
warmed  up  and  measured,  the  requisite  amount 
of  water  can  then  be  added.    Strong  size  and 


332 


scheele's  green. 


working-  size  when  mixed  together  is  known  as 
half  and  lialf  size. 

Ordinary  glue  can  be  used  by  simply  dissolving- 
it  in  water  and  boiling*.  To  ascertain  the  amount 
of  water  necessary  :  Dip  the  fing-ers  in  the  size  and 
then  close  them  tightly  for  about  a  minute,  if, 
when  separating,  they  adhere  slightly  to  each 
other,  the  size  is  properly  made.  If  they  stick  too 
firmly  the  size  is  too  strong,  and  vice  versa.  It  is 
a  mistake  to  use  size  too  strong  as  it  causes  the 
color  to  crack  and  peel  off. 

A  sufficient  has  now  been  said,  possibly,  to  en- 
able the  would-be  scenic  artist  to  begin  operations, 
supposing  that  he  has  already  made  himself  fa- 
miliar with  the  laws  of  drawing  and  perspective, 
for  these  are  of  vital  importance.  The  next  best 
thing  is  to  visit  a  theatre  and  "look  on"  while  the 
work  is  being  done,  and  that  will  be  found  to  be  a 
better  instructor  than  any  words  we  might  write 
or  illustrations  present. 

Scheele's  Green.— An  arsenite  of  copper.  (See 
Mittis  Green.)  Its  manufacture  and  use  are  so 
dangerous  to  health,  they  are  forbidden  by  law  in 
France. 

Screen. — A  contrivance  for  protecting  parts  of  a 
carriage  body  from  dust,  while  it  is  undergoing 
painting  or  varnishing.  A  screen  is  made  by 
covering,  or  stretching,  upon  a  light  wooden  frame 
either  paper  or  cloth,  and  sometimes  of  thin 
roofing  boards.  In  some  shops,  screens  are  thus 
made,  large  enough  to  cover  a  light  bod}7,  which 
is  a  good  plan  where  the  varnish  room  is  defective. 
Screens  made  upon  the  Japanese  plan,  i.  e.,  those 
used  in  dwellings,  and  which  stand  upon  the  floor, 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


333 


are  excellent  in  a  varnish  room,  to  partly  surround 
a  job  and  thus  protect  it  from  dust  and  cold  drafts. 
When  not  in  use,  screens  should  be  kept  in  some 
convenient  place  outside  the  varnish  room,  and 
when  wanted  for  use,  they  should  first  be  given  a 
light  washing  or  sponging  and  then  be  wiped  dry 
with  a  chamois,  to  free  them  from  dust. 

Scroll  Painting- — A  branch  of  decorative  art.  The 
principal  demands  for  executing  this  class  of  work, 
are  a  knowledge  of  drawing,  light  and  shade ;  a 
free  hand,  an  accurate  or  quick  discerning  eye, 
good  tools,  and  a  mind  unclouded  with  other 
matters — for  close  attention  to  the  work  is  indis- 
pensable. 

The  first  of  these  requirements — drawing — is 
taught  in  special  books  or  by  special  teachers,  and 
with  the  supposition  that  the  student  has  already 
a  knowledge  of  the  art,  even  if  it  be  but  a  limited 
one,  we  proceed  to — 
Lesson  1. — All  the  requirements  at  the  outset,  are 
some  sticks  of  chalk,  and  a  good  sized  blackboard. 
Then,  the  formation  of  circles  and  curved  lines 
must  be  practiced,  drawing  them  with  the  chalk  in 
a  bold  and  confident  manner  in  every  conceivable 
direction,  alwa3rs  bearing  iu  mind  that  the  draw- 
ing of  one  correct  circle  or  sweep  out  of  a  hundred, 
is  not  perfection ;  and  he  must  keep  to  work, 
drawing,  wiping  off,  and  drawing-  again,  until  in 
an  easy  off-handed  mark  can  be  made  at  com- 
mand. 

He  must  not  expect  to  make  elaborate  scrolls  or 
anything  like  them,  until  he  has  acquired  full  com- 
mand of  the  chalk.  Not  only  are  circles  and  curved 
lines  necessary,  but  frequently  straight  and  paral- 
lel lines,  as  shown  in  Figs.  118  and  119,  are  to  be 


334 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


made,  and  it  will  be  well  to  draw  these,  alternat- 
ing- with  the  curved,  until  both  the  curved  and 
straight  lines  can  be  easily  and  quickly  produced 
with  the  chalk. 

The  line  made  in  a  serpentine  form  or  double 
sweep  is  called  Hogarth's  line  of  beauty,  and  is 
embodied  in  all  the  beautiful  forms  of  nature  and 
art,  such  lines  are  frequentty  drawn  with  the  com- 
passes, and  may  be  so  drawn  by  the  professional ; 
but  m  order  to  train  the  muscles  of  the  hand  and 


Fig.  118.  Fig.  119. 


eye,  it  is  best  for  all  such  auxiliaries  to  be  laid 
aside,  then,  confidence  will  be  established,  and 
strength,  freedom  and  beauty  will  be  added  to 
the  designs.  The  drawing  of  parallel  lines  either 
curved  or  straight  may  seem  to  be  of  little  use, 
but  this  is  done  to  "coach"  the  eye  and  hand  to 
work  harmoniously  together.  The  student 
having  become  proficient  with  the  chalk,  in  draw- 
ing the  curves  and  straight  lines  may  now  pass 
on  to — 

Lesson  2. — First  let  us  suppose  that  we  are  in 
an  inland  town,  awaj^  from  stores  where  first- 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


335 


class  tools  are  to  be  had  ;  away  from  the  great 
city,  where  ornamental  designs  are  in  abundance, 
and  where  frequent  opportunity  is  given  to  see  the 
handiwork  of  others,  and  thus  improve  the  eye. 
To  make  the  tools  for  the  work  in  hand  is  not  so 
hard  a  task  as  many  suppose — supposing  of 
course  that  we  have  a  camel's-hair  blender  or 
brush  with  which  ordinary  coloring  is  done — from 
this  we  cut  a  small  quantity  of  hair,  say,  twenty- 
five  or  thirty  single  hairs,  being  careful  to  keep 
them  in  their  relative  position,  that  the  point 
may  not  be  so  blunt  or  stubby  that  cutting  must 
be  resorted  to — the  natural  ends  of  the  hairs 


make  the  softest  and  best  point  to  a  pencil — tying 
the  little  bunch  of  hairs  near  the  butt  end  with 
firm  thread  or  silk,  we  look  about  for  a  small 
feather  from  which  to  cut  the  quill,  into  which  to 
insert  the  bunch  of  hairs.  This  done  we  find  that 
a  fine  ornamental  pencil  is  not  so  much  after  all, 
so  far  as  making  is  concerned.  Now  for  the  paint. 
The  color,  or  paint  as  some  would  call  it,  for  this 
work  should  be  mixed  in  some  quick-drying  var- 
nish or  japan  and  tempered  with  linseed  oil  until 
it  dries  with  a  little  more  gloss  than  an  egg-shell 
has,  then  thinned  with  turpentine,  upon  the  palette. 
Paints  mixed  with  oil,  or  tube  colors,  dry  too  slow- 
ly and  do  not  as  a  general  thing,  flow  so  freely 


Fig.  120. 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


from  the  pencil — or  else  if  thinned  too  much  flow 
too  freely  and  cause  trouble.  The  next  in  order 
is  the  design,  and  this  must  come  spontaneously 
from  the  end  of  the  pencil.  We  are  not  about 
to  present  you  with  finely  drawn  and  pricked  pat- 
terns. Here  you  will  see  what  to  do  without  pat- 
terns. The  first  mark  made  with  the  pencil 
(paint  pencil  we  mean,  not  a  lead  pencil)  will  be 
the  line  of  beauty,  which  was  practiced  upon  with 
chalk,  and  with  that  knowledge  gained  it  will  be 
quite  easy  to  make  it.  This  forms  the  starting- 
point.  The  little  pencil  which  was  made  from 
the  hair  of  the  blender,  we  find,  will  by  a  light 


Fig.  121.— The  Line  of  Beauty. 


pressure  make  a  fine  line,  while  a  heavy  pressure 
produces  a  proportionate  heavy  line,  being-  very 
similar  to  the  action  of  a  pen  upon  paper :  so  in 
making-  the  line  of  beauty,  we  beg-in  with  a  very 
lig-ht  pressure  increasing-  as  we  come  to  the  other 
end,  then  stopping-  abruptly  we  find  just  such  a 
mark  as  shown  above  (Fig-.  121). 

The  next  is  the  leafing ;  and  this  is  done  by  a 
simple  heavy  pressure  upon  the  pencil  and  a  light 
pressure  upon  lifting  the  same  from  the  work, 
which  makes  a  mark  like  Fig.  122  ;  a  series  of  such 
marks — all  made  with  little  or  no  exertion,  and 
with  one  dab  of  the  pencil  only — will  form  a  fig- 
ure something  like  Fig.  123,  which  would  be  an 
excellent  pattern  for  a  spoke  face.  This  style  of 
ornamentation  ma}T  be  carried  on  throughout  the 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


337 


parts  of  a  gear,  on  beds,  bar  springs,  wheels,  etc., 
and  here  in  the  2nd  lesson  you  are  enabled — if  you 
have  practiced  well — to  make  an  ornament.  And 
now  in  Lesson  3,  we  will  look  at  the  next  variety 
of  off-hand  ornamentation,  namely  light  scrolls. 


Fig.  122.  Fig.  123. 


Lesson  3. — For  this  work  the  paint  should  be  quite 
thin  and  semi-transparent,  and  a  tint  of  green, 
will  perhaps  look  well,  so  mixing  some  keg  lead 
and  turpentine,  and  adding  a  drop  of  chrome 
green,  then  a  few  drops  of  quick  varnish,  we 


Fig.  124.   Fig.  125.      Fig.  126.  Fig.  127. 


begin  ;  with  the  transparent  paint,  each  mark  of 
the  pencil  as  it  is  twisted  around  will  leave  upon 
the  work  lines  of  light  and  heavy  color,  forming 
beautiful  shades,  and  giving  to  each  leaf  and  stem 
an  effect  not  easily  produced  by  other  means.  It 
must  be  understood  that  one  mark  of  the  pencil  is 
sufficient  to  produce  the  desired  effect,  and  if  the 


338 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


work  be  retouched,  all  beautiful  lines  will  be 
effaced.  With  the  small  camel's-hair  pencil  lay 
on  with  one  sweep,  a  mark  as  shown  in  Fig.  124 ; 
forming-  the  foundation  or  main  portion  of  a  leaf. 
Now  by  adding-  the  two  points  shown  in  Fig-.  125, 
and  the  additional  point  shown  in  Fig-.  126,  a  full 
leaf  will  be  formed,  and  by  repeating-  these  leaves, 
if  properly  placed,  a  very  handsome  scroll  may  be 
made.  The  extension  of  a  leaf  is  shown  in  Fig-. 
127 ;  in  which  we  begin  to  see  something-  that 
looks  "  scrolly."  These  are  the  main  features  of  a 
scroll  pattern,  and  if  the  student  will  practice  as 
we  have  shown  until  he  has  the  knack  at  his 
fingers'  ends,  and  can  paint  them  right,  left,  up, 
down,  and  in  any  conceivable  way,  he  may  g-o  on 
with  Lesson  No.  4.  The  desire  to  push  forward 
and  grasp  the  whole  art  at  once  is  not  the  proper 
way  to  succeed,  and  the  longer  the  student  is  in 
the  primary  class  the  more  proficient  he  will 
become.  The  designs  have  now  become  suffi- 
ciently interesting  for  an  extended  amount  of 
practice,  and  we  desire  to  have  the  student  invent 
Ms  oivn  patterns,  these  Figs.  128,  129  and  130, 
being  simply  to  show  what  can  be  done  with  the 
information  imparted  in  the  three  lessons  already 
given. 

Lesson  4. — There  are  a  thousand  peculiar  shapes 
and  forms  constituting  scrolls.  The  learner 
should  choose  one  or  two  standard  designs  and 
practice  on  these  until  he  makes  them  perfectly, 
then,  add  new  features  as  he  improves.  Each 
curved  line  of  a  scroll  must  be  an  easy  and  grace- 
ful sweep,  and  harmony  of  design  must  also  be  very 
carefully  attended  to.  For  instance,  if  the  design 
is  intended  for  a  centre-piece,  circles  of  the  largest 


Fig.  130. 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


diameter  should  form  the  centre,  and  a  gradual 
diminution  of  curves,  in  their  various  forms,  be 
made  to  extend  therefrom,  until  the  end  or  apex 
is  reached,  on  either  side.  The  same  rule  is  applic- 
able to  a  corner  pattern,  and  a  close  observation 
of  such  work  made  by  an  experienced  hand  will  at 
once  clearly  define  the  idea  we  wish  to  convey. 

This  balance  of  proportions  is  by  many  begin- 
ners entirely  everlooked,  and  if  so,  no  matter  how 
well  the  painting-  may  be  done  the  result  will  be 
in  the  eyes  of  a  connoisseur  a  failure. 

The  parts  which  make  up  a  scroll  pattern  should 
be  connected,  or  at  least  touch  each  other,  and 
not  as  we  frequently  see  them,  remain  disjointed, 
or  completely  isolated  from  the  parent  stem. 

The  copying-  from  frescoed  or  engraved  ara- 
besques not  expressly  designed  for  such  use  is  not 
to  be  commended,  for  in  both  cases  the  designs 
although  faultless  as  works  of  art  in  their  origi- 
nal position,  will  invarably  be  found  too  finely 
wrought  or  too  delicately  shaded  to  supply  the 
place  of  a  wagon,  car  or  stage  scroll  pattern. 
Very  valuable  ideas,  certainly,  may  be  drawn 
from  them,  but  a  direct  copy  should  never  .be 
made.  In  designing  a  scroll,  the  form  of  panel 
should  at  once  decide  the  size  and  general  form  of 
the  scroll.  In  closing  our  lessons  in  scrolling,  we 
present  two  scroll  designs  for  practice,  and  would 
be  pleased  to  have  the  student  make  them  in  gold 
and  shades  as  follows:  on  the  design  with 

gilding-size — after  having  rubbed  the  panel  over 
with  whiting  to  prevent  the  gold  from  sticking — 
using  a  camel 's-hair  lettering  pencil,  then,  when 
the  size  is  " tacky"  lay  the  gold  leaf  (and  here 
we  would  remark,  for  practicing,  it  is  just  as  well 


312 


SCROLL  PAINTING. 


to  use  gold  bronze  ;  a  paper  containing  an  ounce 
costing  but  sixty  cents,  and  sufficient  for  covering 
1000  square  feet  of  scroll  patterns  on  painted  pa- 
per) wash  off  clean  and  dry  with  a  chamois,  and 
if  time  is  at  disposal  lay  over  the  gold  a  thin  coat 
of  rubbing  varnish — which  makes  a  better  surface 
for  shading  on — but  if  not  proceed  to  shade  the 


Fig.  132.— Design  for  a  Flat  Scroll. 


scroll.  Procure  some  common  asphaltum  and  a 
very  little  burnt  sienna,  thin  them,  when  mixed 
together  with  turpentine,  and  with  a  short-haired 
camels'  pencil  Jay  in  the  shades  as  shown  in  the 
engravings,  putting  it  on  very  thin,  and  repeating 
the  washing  of  shade  until  the  darkest  parts 
are  dark  enough  and  all  blend  off  into  the  gold 


SCROLL  PAINTING.  343 

without  showing"  the  connection.  Next  upon 
those  parts  and  edges  where  the  light  is  supposed 
to  fall,  put  fine  lines  of  cream  color  and  others  on 
the  prominent  lights,  of  white. 


Fig.  133.— Design  for  a  Flat  Scroll. 


The  Roman  scroll  having  received  attention  at 
our  hands,  we  will  now  look  at  the  Flat  Scroll. 
This  description  of  scrolling  or  ornamentation  is 
nowadays  very  fashionable  on  railway  cars,  par- 
ticularly for  head  linings;  they  are  similar  to 
those   commonly  employed  by  fresco-painters. 


344 


SCRUBS. 


There  are  three  modes  of  putting-  on  these  scrolls, 
the  first  and  simplest  being  in  plain  gold,  with  no 
shades  or  lights ;  the  second,  in  various  colors ; 
the  third  in  colors  and  gold,  but  with  no  shading. 
Remember  that  flat  scrolling  is  accompanied  by 
shading,  which  latter  is  peculiar  to  scrolling  "  in 
relief."  Much  of  the  work  of  flat  scrolling  is  done 
with  a  pencil  in  the  same  manner  as  scroll  strip- 
ing (g.  v.). 

But  little  information  can  be  given  in  writing 
concerning  the  designing  of  flat  scrolls.  Suffice 
is  to  say,  the  patterns  are  infinite  in  number  and 
variet}T,  ranging  from  the  simplest  curves  up  to 
elaborate  combinations  of  curves  and  straight 
lines.  The  beginner  should  first  study  the  sim- 
plest forms.  In  the  same  manner  as  we  have 
suggested  with  those  "  in  relief,"  and  as  he  be- 
comes familiar  with  the  requirements  of  the  work 
he  will  naturally  become  more  fertile  in  designing 
and  more  daring  in  execution. 

Scrubs. — A  short-haired  bristle  brush,  used  by  art- 
ists in  painting  on  velvet,  plush,  etc. 

Sea-Creen. — The  color  of  the  sea;  a  faint  bluish- 
green  tint. 

Seam  Brush. — A  brush  made  of  horse-hair  and 
bristles,  formed  similar  to  a  Brick  Header  (q.  v.). 

Sealing-Wax  Varnish. — Crush  and  pulverize  a  stick 
of  ordinary  sealing-wax  to  fine  powder  and  put  it 
in  a  bottle  with  spirits  of  wine.  Allow  it  to  stand 
without  heat,  shaking  the  bottle  frequently,  until 
the  wax  is  all  dissolved  and  the  mixture  is  of  the 
consistency  of  varnish.  A  2-ounce  stick  of  wax 
will  be  sufficient  for  a  half  pint  of  spirits.  This 
varnish  dries  quickly,  and  should  be  made  only  as 


SHELLAC. 


345 


.  required  for  use.    It  gives  to  work-boxes  and  such 
articles  the  appearance  of  Indian  japanning'. 

Self-Color  or  Self-Tint. — A  pattern  in  two  or  more 
tones  of  a  similar  hue. 

Setting. — The  state  in  which  varnish  passes  from  a 
limpid  fluid  to  a  thick  or  congealed  gum.  When 
varnish  has  been  spread  upon  a  surface,  it  begins 
to  thicken,  and  when  that  thickening-  has  gone  on 
until  there  is  no  liability  of  the  varnish  moving" 
from  where  it  was  put — by  running'  or  sagging 
down — it  is  said  to  have  set. 

Sharp  Color. — A  bright,  rich  or  positive  color,  also 
a  quick  drying*  paint. 

Shade. — The  dark  portion  of  a  picture;  the  thickness 
or  relief  given  to  a  letter  when  painted  upon 
a  flat  surface;  degree  or  gradation  of  light  or 
color. 

Shellac,  or  Shell  Lac— The  latter  being  the  proper 
orthography — a  resinous  substance  which,  in 
India,  flows  from  certain  trees  in  the  form  of 
lucid  tears,  in  consequence  of  punctures  made 
upon  their  branches  by  a  small  insect. 

It  is  found  in  commerce  in  three  forms — stick 
lac,  seed  lac,  and  shell  lac.  Stick  lac  is  the 
substance  in  its  natural  state  investing  the  small 
twigs  of  trees,  which  are  generally  broken  off  in 
collecting  it.  When  separated  from  the  twigs  and 
partly  cleansed  it  is  known  as  seed  lac.  Shell  lac 
is  the  seed  lac  after  it  has  been  melted,  purified 
and  formed  into  thin  cakes. 

Shellac  is  very  apt  to  be  adulterated  with 
common  resin,  and  hence,  unless  when  a  pale 
lacquer  is  required,  most  artizans  prefer  seed  lac. 


346 


SIENNA. 


When  lac  is  mixed  with  a  little  resin  and  colored 
with  vermilion  or  ivory-black  it  forms  sealing- 
wax. 

Shellac  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  but  not  in  turpen- 
tine ;  shellac  varnish  is  extensively  used  in  the 
arts. 

Sienna  or  Terra  de  Sienna.— An  ochre  formerly 
called  Sienna  Earth.  The  raw  sienna  is  a  peculiar 
yellow,  and  when  burned  is  a  dark  red  chestnut 
color.  Great  care  is  exercised  in  selecting  and 
burning-  this  pigment,  as  it  is  generally  used 
where  its  brightness  and  clearness  of  tone  is 
brought  out  in  the  transparency  more  than  its 
body. 

Silking. — A  term  applied  to  the  appearance  of  a 
varnished  surface,  when  it  is  like  a  textile  or 
fibrous  material,  as  silk  or  enameled  leather.  It  is 
generally  caused  by  cold  draughts  upon  the  var- 
nish, but  the  mixing  of  turpentine  with  the  varnish, 
or  the  use  of  a  brush  from  out  the  brush-keeper  in 
which  oil  is  used  to  preserve  the  brushes,  will 
cause  silking.  Brush  marks,  made  by  working 
the  varnish  too  long,  often  give  the  appearance  of 
silking. 

Silver  Leaf. — Silver  or  alloys  of  same,  beaten  out 
like  gold  leaf  into  thin  sheets.  It  is  notoriously 
fugitive,  oxydizing  to  a  dull  copper  color  very 
soon  after  being  exposed  to  the  atmosphere,  and 
its  use  is  extremely  limited  in  late  days.  Nickel 
or  Aluminium  leaf  has  taken  its  place  in  most 
cases. 


Size. — A  glutinous  or  adhesive  substance,  of  which 
there  are  man}?-  kinds,  and  used  for  many  purposes. 
Size  maybe  used  for  fastening  to  any  surface  gold 


SMOOTHING  BRUSH. 


347 


or  other  metal  leaf,  bronze,  flockings,  etc.,  and 
these  will  be  found  fully  described  under  the  re- 
spective heads  of  Gilding  on  Wood,  Gilding  on 
Glass,  etc.  (which  see). 

A  size  for  ceilings  and  walls  to  be  painted, 
papered  or  kalsomined,  is  made  by  simply  dissolv- 
ing* one-half  a  pound  of  glue  in  a  pail  of  boiling- 
water.  Size  for  plaster  casts  to  be  painted  may 
be  made  as  follows  :  Dissolve  one  ounce  of  albumen 
(white  of  egg)  in  four  ounces  of  acetic  acid,  or 
strong-  vinegar. 

Slush  Paint. — The  refuse  from  paint-cups  and  var- 
nish cups,  or  any  waste  paint  thrown  into  a 
receptacle  and  kept  for  coarse  work,  such  as  paint- 
ing- the  inside  and  bottoms  of  carriages,  roofs, 
around  chimneys,  etc.  The  economical  painter 
will  seldom  allow  any  great  quantity  of  slush  to 
accumulate,  and  if  used  soon  after  it  comes  from 
the  cups  there  will  be  no  waste,  while  if  allowed 
to  dry  hard  it  becomes  worthless. 

Smalt. — A  coarse  powder,  made  in  various  colors. 
Used  for  signs,  etc.  The  letters  being-  first  laid 
out  and  gilded,  an  oily,  sticky  paint,  near  the  color 
of  the  smalt  to  be  used,  is  then  "  cut  around  "  the 
letters,  and  while  yet  "  wet,"  the  board  being  laid 
horizontally,  the  smalt  is  sifted  upon  it  to  the 
depth  of  i  an  inch,  left  to  dry,  after  which  the 
superfluous  smalt  is  brushed 
off.    Blue,  green,  black  and  ^/^N. 


brush  made  as  shown  in  the 

annexed  figure,  for  smoothing-  down  paper-hang- 


red  smalts  look  well  with 
gold. 

Smoothing  Brush. — A  bristle 


Fig.  135. —Smoothing 
Brush. 


348 


SNOTF  COLOR. 


ings,  when  applying  the  paper  to  the  wall  or 
ceiling-.  They  answer  the  purpose  designed  ad- 
mirably, and  are  better  than  the  whisk-broom  and 
wad  of  cloth  which  paper-hangers  were  wont  to 
use  in  olden  times. 

Snuff  Color. — Four  parts  chrome  yellow  and  two 
of  Vandyke  brown. 

Soffit. — The  sloping-  ceiling  of  a  staircase,  the 
under-side  of  a  cornice  next  the  ceiling,  and  the 
ceilings  of  beams  and  openings. 

Soluble  Class,  or  Water-Class.— This  liquid  is 
now  much  used  for  painting  where  it  is  desirous 
of  rendering  Avood  incombustible,  and  for  floors 
in  place  of  wax  and  oil.  A  floor  is  first  well 
cleaned,  and  then  the  cracks  are  filled  up  with  a 
cement  of  water-glass  and  whiting;  afterward 
water-glass  of  sixty  to  sixty-five  degrees  of  the 
thickness  of  syrup  is  applied  with  a  stiff  brush. 
Any  desired  color  is  imparted  to  the  floor  in  a 
second  coat  of  the  water-glass,  and  additional  coats 
are  to  be  given  until  the  requisite  polish  is  ob- 
tained. A  still  higher  finish  may  be  given  by 
pumicing  of  the  last  coat  and  rubbing  it  well  with 
oil.  It  can  also  be  advantageously  used  in  paint- 
ing houses,  decorations  for  theatres,  scenery,  and 
so  forth. 

Spanish  Brown. — A  dull  red  pigment,  similar  to 
Venetian  red,  but  inferior  and  used  only  for  com- 
mon work. 

Spar  Varnish. — A  varnish  originally  intended  for 
coating  vessels,  masts  and  spars,  hence  its  name  ; 
but  being  found  excellent  for  other  purposes — as 
for  example,  the  outer  doors  of  dwellings — it  is 
extensively  used  by  house-painters. 


SPONGE. 


349 


.Sponge. — A  fibrous  and  porous  marine  substance, 
found  far  down  in  ocean  depths,  clinging'  to  rocks 
and  shells,  and  is  gathered  in  the  Mediterranean 
and  in  the  West  Indies.  Under  the  microscope 
the  sponge  presents  a  singular  appearance,  and  it 
is  affirmed  that  it  is  actually  pinned  together  by 
metallic  pins,  with  heads  and  points,  similar  to 
those  used  at  the  toilet.  These  microscopic  pins 
are  set  at  every  angle,  thus  holding  the  parts 
together. 

Sponges  should  be  selected  with  care,  for  many 
of  them  are  "weighted"  with  ]ime  and  sand,  being 
sold  by  the  pound.  In  choosing  sponges,  the 
light-colored  varieties  (not  bleached),  and  those  of 
a  size  that  will  not  require  cutting  will  be  found 
best.  Occasionally  the  dark  kinds  will  answer 
the  purpose  but  they  are  generally  more  open  and 
weak  in  fibre.  The  several  varieties  of  sponges 
are  classed  according  to  their  market  value  as 
"  sheep's  wool,"  "  yellow,"  "  fox  glove,"  "  grass," 
etc.  The  first  named  is  the  variety  most  sought 
as  it  brings  the  highest  price.  The  most  of  the 
vessels  engaged  in  the  sponge  trade  are  owned  and 
fitted  out  at  Ke}^  West.  The  outfit  of  a  sponge 
schooner  consists  of  a  number  of  long  poles  with 
hooks  fastened  on  the  end  for  gathering  the 
sponges  ;  from  three  to  seven  small  boats  called 
"dingies,"  with  provisions  for  from  eight  to 
twelve  weeks ;  water  glasses,  etc.  In  sponging, 
each  dingy  carries  two  men,  with  water-glasses, 
hooks  and  other  necessities.  While  one  man 
sculls  the  boat  about,  the  other,  lying  across  the 
boat's  thwart  with  his  head  in  the  water-glass, 
scans  the  bottom  for  sponges.  The  water-glass 
is  nothing  but  a  deep  wooden  pail  with  a  circular 


350 


SPURS. 


pane  of  glass  for  a  bottom.  Placing-  this  upright  in 
the  water,  and  putting-  the  head  in  far  enough  to 
exclude  most  of  the  light,  one  can  easily  see  an 
object  on  the  bottom  in  six  or  seven  fathoms  of 
water.  The  sponger  directs  the  sculler  how  to 
go  by  waving  his  hand,  and  when  in  a  desirable 
position,  he  thrusts  his  long  pole  down  and  hooks 
a  sponge. 

The  vessels  remain  out  upon  the  bars  from 
Monday  until  Friday  evening  of  each  week,  com- 
ing into  the  keys  in  order  to  clean  the  sponges 
gathered  the  week  previous,  put  those  gathered 
the  current  week  into  the  crawls,  put  their  wood 
and  water  on  board,  and  prepare  for  the  next 
week.  The  freshly  gathered  sponges  are  put  into 
crawls  or  pens,  made  by  driving  posts  in  the  sand, 
where  at  low  water  they  will  be  almost  dry. 
Here  they  are  left  until  the  next  Saturday  to  be 
washed  by  the  tides.  In  the  following  Saturday 
they  are  cleansed  by  striking  them  one  or  two 
light  blows  with  a  paddle. 

Spurs. — The  parts  of  a  letter  projecting  from  the 
main  stem,  or  perpendiculars  of  a  letter ;  and  a 
distinguishing  feature  between  the  full  block  and 
the  half  block  letters  (which  see). 

Spruce  Ochre.— A  dark  variety  of  Yellow  Ochre. 

Stains.— To  restore  the  true  old  color  of  oak  newly 
worked,  put  a  few  old  nails  or  pieces  of  rusty  iron 
in  a  bottle  with  vinegar,  and  leave  them  for  a  few 
days  that  a  portion  of  the  iron  may  be  dissolved. 
If  this  be  applied  to  new  oak  it  will  turn  it  to  a 
purplish  black,  but  oiling  and  polishing  will  re- 
move the  purple  hue  ;  when,  however,  the  solution 
is  applied  to  old  oak  newly  worked  it  will  restore 
it  to  its  proper  color. 


STAINING  WOOD. 


351 


Stain  Coat. — A  coating-  put  over  a  surface  of  rough- 
stuff  of  some  different  color,  and  generally  made 
of  some  cheap  pigment,  japan  and  turpentine,  to 
enable  the  workman  to  see  when  by  his  rubbing 
with  pumice-stone  and  water  that  the  surface  is 
level,  for  when  the  stain  coat  is  all  rubbed  off  the 
surface  should  be  smooth. 

Staining  Wood. — The  staining-  of  plain  wood  to 
color  it,  or  to  give  it  the  appearance  of  another 
variety,  as  the  staining-  of  soft  pine  to  imitate 
mahogany,  rosewood,  etc.,  is  altogether  a  differ- 
ent process  from  dyeing  it,  and  it  requires  no  prep- 
aration before  the  stain  be  applied  as  in  dyeing. 

A  beautiful  variety  of  graining  may  be  executed 
with  strong  acids  on  plain  wood,  brought  out  by 
heat,  in  which  way  the  nitrous  acids  and  aqua- 
fortis applied  affords  amber  and  yellow  shades  of 
a  darker  and  dusky  hue,  so  as  together  to  imitate 
the  various  hues  of  the  tortoise-shell,  after  which 
the  work  is  cleaned  off  and  varnished. 
The  following  are  stains  for  wood  : 

1.  Cheap  Black  Walnut  Stain. — Burnt  umber,  2 
parts  ;  rose  pink,  1  part ;  glue,  1  part ;  water 
sufficient ;  heat  all  together  and  dissolve  com- 
pletely. Apply  to  the  wood  with  a  sponge,  then, 
when  dry,  varnish  with  shellac. 

2.  Ebony  Stain. — Drop  black,  2  parts  ;  rose  pink,  1 
part ;  mix  with  turpentine  ;  varnish  with  shellac. 

3.  Extra  Ebony  Stain. — Pour  2  quarts  of  boiling- 
water  over  1  oz.  of  powdered  extract  of  log- 
wood, and  when  the  solution  is  effected,  1  dr.  of 
yellow  chromate  of  potash  is  added,  and  the  whole 
well  strained  through  coarse  flannel,  When 
rubbed  on  wood  it  produces  a  deep  black.  Two  or 
three  applications  will  be  necessary. 


352 


STAINING  WOOD. 


4.  Rosewood  Stain.— To  imitate  rosewood  it  is 
necessary  to  use  two  stains,  a  red  and  black,  and 
to  make  these,  proceed  as  follows  : 

To  a  gallon  of  water  add  one  pound  of  logwood 
chips  and  a  double  handful  of  walnut  peels  or 
shells,  and  boil  until  a  strong  dark-colored  solu- 
tion results,  then  strain  to  remove  chips  and  add 
one  pint  of  best  vinegar.  This  forms  the  black 
stain. 

To  make  the  red  stain.— Boil  |  pound  of  logwood 
in  3  pints  of  water  till  it  is  of  a  very  dark  red  ; 
add  |  ounce  salt  of  tartar  (carbonate  of  potassa). 
While  boiling  hot  stain  the  wood  with  two  or  three 
coats,  then  when  dry  form  streaks  with  the  dark  or 
black  stain  (as  above)  using  a  flat  paint  brush 
which  has  been  cut  so  that  its  point  or  end  is 
ragged,  and  a  ver}'  fair  imitation  of  rosewood  will 
result.  This  process  may  be  transposed  if  desir- 
ed :  that  is,  stain  first  with  the  black,  then  with 
the  red. 

5.  The  Best  Ebony  Stain.— Boil  ^  lb.  of  logwood 
chips  in  2  qts.  of  water,  add  1  oz.  pearlash  and 
brush  the  hot  solution  over  the  wood.  Then  take 
1  qt.  of  the  logwood  decoction  and  1£  oz.  verdigris 
and  \  oz.  of  copperas;  strain  and  throw  m  \  lb. 
of  iron  rust.    Brush  the  wood  with  this  and  oil  it. 

G.  French  Mahogany  Stain. — The  wood  being  well 
smoothed  is  rubbed  with  dilute  nitrous  acid.  Then 
1  oz.  dragon's  blood  is  dissolved  in  a  pint  of  spirit  s 
of  wine  ;  this,  and  \  oz.  carbonate  of  socla,  are  then 
mixed  together  and  filtered,  and  the  liquor  is  laid 
on  with  a  soft  brush.  The  application  is  repeated 
and  in  a  short  interval  the  wood  will  appear  like 
mahogany. 


STAINING  WOOD. 


353 


7.  To  Darken  Light  Mahogany. — To  avoid  the 
patched  appearance  when  the  mahogany  furniture 
is  repaired,  wash  the  new  mahogany  with  soap- 
lees,  or  dissolve  quicklime  in  water  and  use  in  the 
same  way,  being1  careful  not  to  let  either  be  too 
strong  or  it  will  make  the  wood  too  dark. 

8.  Black  Walnut  Stain. — Boil  for  a  quarter  of 
an  hour  1  qt.  of  water  to  which  is  added  1^  ozs. 
washing  soda;  2^  ozs. Vandyke  brown;  J  oz.  bichro- 
mate of  potassa.  Apply  with  a  brush,  either  hot 
or  cold. 

9.  Crimson  Stain. — Boil  1  lb.  of  Brazil  dust  in 
3  qts.  water  for  an  hour,  strain  it  and  add  J  oz. 
of  cochineal ;  boil  again  for  a  short  time,  and  it 
will  be  ready  for  use.  If  a  brighter  scarlet  is 
desired,  boil  ^  oz.  saffron  in  1  qt.  of  water  and 
apply  before  putting  on  the  red  stain. 

10.  Cherry  Stain. — Take  rain  water  4  qts  ;  annato, 
5  ozs.,  boil  in  a  copper  kettle  until  the  annato  is 
dissolved,  then  put  in  a  piece  of  potash  the  size  of 
a  walnut  and  keep  it  on  the  fire  half  an  hour,  then 
bottle  for  use. 

11.  Darkening  Mahogany.— To  darken  mahogany 
with  a  deep  tint,  and  yet  keep  plenty  of  color,  a 
small  amount  of  chromate  of  potash  may  be 
melted  in  a  quart  of  water,  and  applied  with  a 
piece  of  woolen  cloth. 

12.  Walnut  Stain. — Genuine  powdered  Vandyke 
brown  is  mixed  with  a  small  amount  of  pearlash 
in  cold  water,  by  heating  till  it  becomes  a  paste, 
and  a  quart  of  boiling  water  gradually  poured  on 
and  stirred.  Also  apply  with  a  piece  of  woolen 
cloth. 

13.  Fine  Brown  Stain. — This  may  be  obtained  by 


354 


STAINING  WOOD. 


diluting  the  walnut  stain  with  three  times  its 
volume  of  water. 

14.  Black  Stain. — An  extract  of  logwood,  obtained 
by  boiling  it  three  hours  in  water,  is  to  be  applied 
hot,  making  a  red  stain.  Coat  this  over  with 
vinegar  that  has  stood  three  hours  in  a  jar,  with 
rusty  nails  at  bottom,  and  you  have  your  black. 

15.  Rosewood. — Grain  with  above  vinegar. 

16.  Brown  Oak. — The  walnut  stain  as  described, 
diluted  to  the  shade  required,  will  serve  for  brown 
oak. 

17.  Birch. — A  good  imitation  of  birch  is  obtained 
by  a  solution  of  chromate  of  potash. 

18.  Red  Oil. — Red  oil  for  mahogany  is  got  by  sim- 
mering linseed  oil  into  which  alkanet  root  has 
been  thrown.    The  oil  must  be  closely  watched. 

19.  Oak  Over-graining. — Vandyke  brown,  ground 
in  water,  is  placed  on  a  plate,  with  a  basin  of  stale 
beer  beside  it;  the  pencil  over-grainer  is  dipped  in 
the  beer,  and  then  the  tips  of  hairs  into  the  water 
color.  The  tips  are  drawn  lightly  from  top  to 
bottom  of  the  panel,  in  straight  lines,  over  the 
combings.  The  mottler  is  then  brought  into 
requisition  for  broader  veins  and  for  knots,  and 
while  the  color  is  still  wet  the  badger  softener. 
To  prevent  "cissing,"  go  over  all  the  grain  with 
a  sponge  dipped  in  a  thin  paste  of  whiting,  or 
Fuller's  earth. 

20.  Pine  Staining. — Many  excellent  stains  of  pine 
may  be  obtained  by  using  the  ordinary  graining 
colors,  Vandyke  brown,  raw  and  burnt  sienna, 
ultramarine  blue,  etc.,  applied  with  a  brush, 
without  previous  preparation,  and  then  wiped  off 
with  a  cloth — a  method  that  brings  out  clearly 


STAR  PATTERN. 


355 


the  grain  or  marks  of  the  wood,  which  in  pitch 
pine,  now  being"  extensively  used  for  fittings,  are 
often  extremely  beautiful.  A  better  method  for 
g-eneral  work,  French  polish  being  ordinarily 
too  expensive,  is,  where  dark  oak  or  mahogany 
stains  are  not  wanted,  lig-ht  varnishes,  of  which 
two  coats  are  to  be  applied.  The  glue  size  with 
which  the  work  is  first  coated,  in  order  to  fill  up 
the  pores  of  the  wood,  should  not  be  too  thick,  as 
in  that  case  it  is  liable  to  crack. 
21.  Staining  Pine  a  Walnut  Color. — A  foreign 
exchange,  under  the  heading  of  "  Changing  Poor 
Pine  to  Walnut,"  says  :  "  One  part  of  walnut 
peel  extract  is  mixed  with  six  parts  of  water,  and 
the  wood  is  coated  with  the  solution.  When  the 
material  is  about  half  dry,  a  solution  of  bichro- 
mate of  potash  with  water  is  rubbed  on  it,  and 
this  completes  the  operation.  It  is  said  to  defy 
detection. 

Star  Pattern,  How  to  Draw. — Star  patterns  may 
be  easily  laid  with  the  dividers,  laying  off,  for  in- 
stance, in  five  parts,  moving  the  dividers  and  run- 
ning around  from  the  central  upper  dot  A  until  the 
point  of  the  dividers  just  returns  to  A,  and  five 
dots  are  made,  ABODE.  A  line  from  point 
to  point,  as  shown  in  the  second  cut,  will  then 
form  a  perfect  five-pointed  star.  Any  number  of 
points  may  be  made  by  proceeding  in  a  similar 
manner.  Stars  of  different  sizes,  cut  out  of  leather 
or  oil-cloth,  will  be  found  very  handy  in  the  smith- 
shop  for  marking  step  pads,  etc.  This  pattern  is 
frequently  called  for  in  the  paint-shop,  and  one  is 
often  surprised  to  find  good  workmen  who  are  un- 
able to  properly  lay  out  the  same  with  the  divid- 
ers.   When  a  star  is  painted,  it  is  generally  best 


350 


STENCILING. 


to  shade  it,  or  give  it  "  fullness,"  and  this  is  done 
by  simply  dividing-  each  point  into  two  shades  of 
color,  taking  a  line  from  centre  of  star  to  point. 

Stenciling. — The  application  of  ornamental  designs, 
letters,  etc.,  to  a  surface,  by  spreading  color  over 
a  perforated  pattern.  It  is  a  process  which,  by 
its  simplicity,  the  ease  and  rapidity  with  which  it 
is  executed,  and  the  moderate  amount  of  artistic 
skill  which  it  demands,  specially  recommends  it- 
self to  the  amateur  decorator. 
The  purposes  to  which  it  can  be  applied  are 


A 


Fig.  136.— Star  Pattern. 


many,  and  its  extensive  use  in  the  car  shops,  as 
well  as  by  decorators  in  dwellings,  has  brought  it 
to  favorable  notice  with  the  general  public. 

In  making  stencil  plates  for  various  kinds  of 
work,  many  different  materials  have  been  em- 
ployed— paper,  metal,  leather,  oil-cloth,  etc.  For 
general  purposes,  that  most  used  is  paper,  as 
being  cheapest,  best  fitted  to  draw  the  design  upon, 
and  most  easily  cut.  Stiff  cartridge  paper  is  ex- 
tensively used,  while  some  workmen  prefer  a  sort 


STENCILING. 


357 


of  leather-colored  thin  pasteboard,  sold  under  the 
name  of  "  printers'  press  packing-."  On  this  the 
desig-n  can  be  easily  drawn,  and  the  parts  cut  out 
with  a  sharp  pen-knife  while  resting-  upon  a  piece 
of  g-lass.  Care  must  be  taken  to  cut  clearly  and 
accurately,  the  curves  must  be  true  and  bold,  and 
all  ang-les  well  cleaned  out,  for  any  slig-ht  imper- 
fections in  the  stencil-plates  will  show  in  an  ag-- 
gravated  form  in  the  work. 

To  give  solidity  to  the  paper  some  coat  the 
stencil  after  it  has  been  cut,  with  shellac  varnish 
or  as  some  call  it  "  knotting-,"  which  prevents  the 
absorption  of  the  liquids  which  are  used  upon  it. 
Another  useful  material  for  plates  is  that  known 
as  "oiled  foolscap."  This  is  excellent  for  small 
plates  or  very  fine  work,  besides  its  semi-trans- 
parency enables  one  to  lay  it  over  a  drawing-  and 
trace.  Tin  foil  is  sometimes  used  where  the  sten- 
cil is  to  be  put  on  a  curved  surface,  but  it  is  not 
durable  and  requires  great  care  in  its  use.  Sheet 
brass  and  copper  make  the  most  durable  stencil- 
plate,  but  the  cost  and  trouble  of  cutting-  with  a 
graver  render  it  undesirable.  A  necessary  point 
to  be  observed  in  making-  stencil-plates  is  to  leave 
a  sufficient  number  of  "ties;"  that  is,  bands 
crossing-  the  opening's  at  intervals,  and  thus 
serving-  to  hold  the  plate  tog-ether.  By  referring- 
to  the  illustrations,  and  observing-  the  arrang-e- 
ment  of  one  of  the  desig-ns,  these  ties  will  be 
more  clearly  understood.  These  ties  may  be  cov- 
ered on  the  work,  either  by  putting-  one  pattern 
over  another  or  Irv  the  use  of  the  pencil. 

For  the  benefit  of  those  who  may  wish  to 
stencil,  but  do  not  care  for  the  trouble  of  making- 
plates,  we  may  say,  that  a  large  variety  of  stencil 


358 


STENCILING. 


patterns,  working-  size,  are  published,  and  that  in 
most  large  paint  stores  the  cut  patterns  may  he 
purchased. 

Stencil  brushes,  specially  made  for  this  work  are 
to  be  bought  at  the  dealers.  They  are  of  short 
hair,  flattened  across  the  end  for  the  purpose  of 
dabbing,  fixed  in  round  handles  bound  in  tin  or 
brass. 

Stenciling  has  a  perfectly  legitimate  use  as  a  help 
in  laying-  in  decorations  which  are  afterwards  to 
be  finished  by  hand  penciling.  When  stenciling  is 
thus  made  only  a  preliminary  process,  the  design 


Fig.  137.— Brush  used  in  Stenciling. 


may  be  treated  freely.  Breadth  and  simplicity 
are  no  longer  essentials,  and  in  making  the  plates 
ties  may  be  put  in  at  random,  or  wherever  they 
will  give  greatest  strength,  for  all  traces  of  them 
can  be  removed,  as  before  said,  with  the  pencil,  yet 
a  difficult  matter  in  purely  stenciled  work,  as  the 
pencil  will  not  give  precisely  the  same  texture  as 
the  stencil  brush.  Thus  used  stenciling  becomes 
an  invaluable  aid  to  an  indifferent  draughtsman, 
who  by  this  means  get  in  all  the  main  details  leav- 
ing only  unimportant  parts  to  be  made  good  after- 
wards by  hand  work. 

Used  as  a  decorative  process,  stenciling  has  a 
character  of  its  own,  and  an  interest  in  proportion 
as  it  is  characteristic.  The  ignorant  or  timid 
decorator  is  ashamed  or  half  afraid  of  the  stencil- 


STENCILING. 


359 


ed  look,  and  seeks  to  obliterate  the  traces  of  the 
process.  The  experienced  artist  values  the  char- 
acter that  comes  of  stenciling",  and  would  rather 
accentuate  than  blur  it.  He  prides  himself  upon 
the  aptness  of  his  design  to  the  method  of  its  ex- 
ecution, and  is  best  pleased  with  it  when  he  feels 
he  has  invented  something-  that  could  not  have 
been  so  satisfactorily  reproduced  by  any  other 
process. 

The  drawback  to  the  utility  of  stenciling",  if  not 
entirely  removed,  may  at  least  be  modified  by  the 
adoption  of  the  plan  shown  in  the  accompany- 
ing" diagrams. 


Fig.  138  represents  a  scroll  stencil  cut  in  the  ordi- 
nary manner,  the  pieces  A  B  C  D  requiring  to 
be  joined  by  hand  after  stenciling  the  pattern.  In 
Fig.  139  the  same  scroll  is  shown,  but  with  the 
parts  A  B  C  D  extended  into  simple  leaf  form,  the 
foliated  position  of  each  coming  directly  in  place  of 
the  "  tie,"  and  at  once  obviating  the  necessity  of 
re-touching  the  pattern  after  transfer  to  the  work 
in  hand,  as  the  design  is  complete.  From  this 
example  it  will  be  seen  that  the  introduction  of  a 
more  ornamental  scroll  is  really  less  likely  to 
take  time  than  a  perfectly  plain  curve. 
A  very  unique  effect  may  be  produced  by  the 


Fig.  138.  Fig.  139. 

Stencil  Plates. 


Fig.  140. 


360 


STENCILING. 


introduction  of  imitation  inlaid  work  on  the  ordi- 
nary graining  of  doors  and  dados.    The  method 


Fig.  141.— Stenciling  on  a  Door  Panel. 


is  simple  and  capable  of  infinite  variations.  The 
engraving.  Fig.  141,  represents  one  panel  of  a  door 
so  treated,  and  will,  if  worked  on  the  principles 


STENCILING. 


361 


described,  be  found  a  satisfactory  addition  to  the 
usual  decorative  work. 

After  the  door  has  been  grained,  preferably  in 
imitation  of  satinwood  for  the  panels,  the  first 
necessary  step  is  to  prepare  the  stencil. 

The  parts  of  the  design  possessing*  a  scroll 
formation  should  be  carefully  cut  with  a  sharp 
penknife  out  of  a  sheet  of  cartridge  paper  pre- 
pared by  the  application  of  one  coat  of  patent 
knotting  on  each  side.  It  is  better  to  draw  the 
design  correctly  previous  to  coating  the  paper. 

Having-  prepared  the  stencils,  thoroughly  clean 
the  panel  by  wiping*  it  with  a  chamois  or  wash 
leather  to  remove  any  grease,  etc.,  from  contact 
with  the  distemper  now  to  be  used.  The  panel 
should  have  been  previously  varnished.  If  the 
inlay  is  to  imitate  walnut,  take  equal  parts  of 
Vandyke  brown,  burnt  sienna,  and  a  little  damp 
lake  to  impart  warmth  of  color. 

These  must  be  ground  in  water  and  should  be 
used  with  sufficient  stale  beer  to  render  the  color 
workable.  Coat  the  panel  right  over,  and  with  a 
hog-hair  mottler  vary  the  tints  by  taking  out 
some  portions  of  it  before  it  dries,  softening  the 
whole  with  a  badger-hair  brush.  When  this  is 
thoroughly  dry  the  panel  is  ready  for  the  stencil. 

The  stencil  being  laid  on  in  its  proper  place,  go 
over  it  with  the  stencil  brush  dipped  in  japan 
gold-size  thinned  with  turpentine,  taking  care  to 
use  it  as  sparingly  as  possible  to  prevent  spread- 
ing. The  lines  may  be  drawn  with  the  same 
medium,  using  an  angle  fitch  and  straight 
edge.  In  about  an  hour  the  gold -size  will  be  dry 
enough  to  bear  washing  with  water,  and  a  soft 
sponge  and  water  will  soon  remove  the  distemper, 


362  STENCILING. 


Fig.  142.— Stencil  Designs. 


STENCILING. 


363 


leaving  the  parts  covered  by  the  size,  consequently 
a  walnut  inlay  on  a  satin-wood  panel. 

The  greatest  care  must  be  taken  that  the  var- 
nish has  become  dry  before  any  attempt  is  made 
to  coat  the  work  with  distemper.  The  firmness 
of  hand  and  precision  of  touch  indispensable  to  the 
decorator  can  only  be  obtained  by  patient  practice 
with  the  black-lead  pencil ;  as  well  does  it  afford 
that  education  of  the  eye  to  the  beauty  and  sym- 


A 


Fig.  143.— Knives  for  Cutting  Stencils. 


metry  of  ornamental  forms  which  the  copying  of 
outline  examples  alone  can  give. 

The  design  drawn,  we  may  now  consider  the 
method  of  producing  a  stencil  from  it.  Stencils 
may  be  cut  in  vellum,  paper,  parchment,  lead  foil, 
and  thin  brass  ;  the  two  latter  are  unsuitable  to 
the  requirements  of  the  decorator,  the  lead  foil 
being  used  principally  by  glass  writers  and  em- 
bossers. Having  prepared  the  paper,  the  process 
of  cutting  out  will  be  found  to  demand  the  great- 
est care,  and,  above  all,  well  ground  and  sharpened 
tools.    Have  an  oil-stone  within  reach,  therefore, 


STENCILING. 


365 


and  use  it  frequently.  It  is  quite  useless  going  to 
work  with  a  blunt  knife.  There  is  much  diversity 
of  opinion  as  to  the  most  suitable  blade  for  stencil 
cutting.  The  ordinary  penknife  blade  is  scarcely 
graduated  enough  for  the  purpose,  for  sweeping 
round  the  curve  in  the  pattern  shape.  The  best 
blade  to  my  fancy  is  the  example  A  (Fig.  143), 
while  the  angle  cut,  B,  is  equally  useful  for 
straight  lines.  C,  is  another  useful  shape  for  very 
fine  work. 

In  cutting,  the  knife  should  be  held  firmly  be- 
tween the  forefinger  and  thumb,  the  thicker  part 
of  the  blade  resting  lightly  against  the  tip  of  the 
second  finger.  The  stencil  paper  should  be  held 
in  its  position  b}^  the  left  hand.  In  cutting  a  curve 
draw  the  paper  gently  but  steadily  awa}r  from  the 
body,  and  consequently  against  the  cutting  blade 
in  the  direction  required  by  the  degree  of  curva- 
ture shown  in  the  design.  A  square  of  polished 
plate  glass  is  the  best  material  for,  cutting  on. 
Perforations  of  a  circular  form  are  made  by  the 
use  of  a  leather-punch,  procurable  at  any  tool 
warehouse.  These  punches  are  made  in  various 
sizes,  and  are  so  constructed  that  the  pieces  cut 
out  of  the  stencil  paper  by  the  cutting  edge  pass 
into  the  body  of  the  punch,  whence  they  are  easily 
removed  at  the  opening  in  the  upper  portion  of 
the  implement.  It  is  not  necessary  to  strike  the 
punch,  a  firm  pressure  of  the  hand  is  generally 
sufficient  for  the  purpose  required,  slightly  turn- 
ing the  wrist  at  the  same  moment. 

Glass  has  been  objected  to  by  some  stencil- 
cutters  on  the  supposition  that  it  has  the  effect  of 
destroying  the  keen  edge  requisite  in  making  a 
satisfactory  stencil.    Some  prefer  a  sheet  of  tin  as 


Fig.  145.— Stencil  Designs. 


STONE  OCHRE. 


367 


a  substitute,  while  hard'  wood  or  stone  has  even 
been  suggested :  none  of  these,  in  my  opinion, 
equal  the  polished  plate-glass,  provided  my  sug- 
gestion as  to  the  oil-stone  be  taken  into  account. 
A  sheet  of  tin  might,  and  probably  does,  answer 
for  the  time,  but  the  repeated  indentations  of  the 
surface  and  the  deep  cuts  or  scratches  it  receives 
beneath  the  pressure  to  which  it  must  of  necessity 
be  subjected,  militate  against  its  use.  The  edge 
of  the  knife  may  not  be  so  much  injured,  but  the 
point  may  at  any  moment  slip  into  one  of  the 
scratches,  and  that  simple  deviation  from  the 
direction  in  which  it  was  intended  it  should  have 
gone  would  not  improbably  ruin  an  early  completed 
stencil-plate. 

It  is,  again,  a  frequent  mistake  to  make  a  sten- 
cil on  too  stout  a  paper.  The  strength  of  paper 
does  not  depend  upon  its  stoutness ;  a  closely 
woven  thin  paper  often  possesses  greater  tenacity 
than  much  more  bulky  specimens.  Cartridge 
paper  may  be  used  for  almost  every  purpose. 

Stiff  Color-— Full-bodied  paint. 

Stippling. — This  is  a  process  of  treating  the  surface 
with  the  butt  of  the  bristles,  in  order  to  give  a 
solid  effect.  It  requires  about  double  time,  and  a 
full  coat  of  color  underneath.  It  is  used  for  fine 
wall  work,  and,  recently,  for  heavy  (broad)  wood 
surfaces,  as  it  destroys  brush  marks  and  lines,  and 
gives  a  full  effect. 

Stone  Color. — Five  parts  of  white,  two  of  yellow,  one 
of  raw  umber. 

Stone  Ochre. — An  earthy  oxide  of  iron,  forming  a 
pigment  of  considerable  permanence  in  oil  or 
water. 


3G8 


STOPPING. 


Stopping-— The  English  term  for  puttying,  as  m 
filling-  in  and  making-  good  all  nail-holes,  bad 
joints,  cracks,  etc.  The  circumstance  calling-  for 
the  greatest  care  in  stopping,  is  where  a  panel  or 
other  part  of  the  work  has  received  a  blow,  or  a 
delve  or  shallow  cavity  is  formed.  The  best  way 
to  repair  such  a  spot  is  to  deepen  it  by  pricking 
holes  in  it  with  an  awl  or  a  nail,  and  these  should 
incline  in  different  directions,  and  should  be  more 
thickly  placed  or  more  numerous  near  the  edges 
than  in  the  middle  of  the  space.  Tacks  are  some- 
times driven  into  such  shallow  places,  with  the 
head  left  a  little  way  out  from  the  bottom,  so  that 
the  putty  may  cling  around  it  and  remain  firmly. 


Fig.  146.— Straight-Edge. 


Straight-Edge.— There  are  many  varieties  of 
straight-edge  in  use  among  decorators,  but  much 
of  their  utility  depends  upon  the  bevel.  In  Fig. 
146  is  shown  two  of  different  bevels,  that  marked  A 
is  most  often  met  with,  but  a  few  words  will  tend 
to  convince  the  reader  that  B  is  really  the  safest 
in  working.  Much  of  the  steadiness  of  your  line 
arises  from  the  perfectly  even  contact  of  the 
straight-edge  with  the  surface  of  the  work,  and  it 
is  at  once  obvious  that  the  wider  the  surface  of 
the  straight-edge  available  to  lay  on  the  work, 
the  steadier  may  it  be  held  by  the  workman, 
and  the  less  liable  is  it  to  "  shift "  by  the  contact 


STRIPING. 


3G9 


of  the  lining-fitch  as  it  passes  along"  the  bevel. 
The  straight-edge  is  made  of  various  woods,  ma- 
hogany, slightly  polished,  being  perhaps  the  best, 
but  for  ceiling  work  deal  or  pine  is  preferable,  be- 
ing so  much  lighter  in  weight,  an  important  con- 
sideration not  to  be  overlooked.  An  angle-fitch 
is  the  proper  tool  for  running  all  lines  upon  a  flat 
surface.  The  sizes  commonly  in  use  for  general 
purposes  are  from  f  in.  to  H  in-  m  width.  Of 
course  smaller  sizes  are  made  for  finer  work. 

For  running  distemper  lines  it  may  be  noted  that 
the  color  should  be  thinned  with  water  only  in 
order  that  it  may  flow  freely  from  the  fitch,  and 
further,  that  it  may  be  used  much  more  fluid  in 
substance  than  the  color  used  for  the  corners  or 
other  parts  of  the  ceiling. 

Straw  Color. — Five  parts  yellow,  two  of  white,  one 
red. 

Stripe. — A  line  or  long  narrow  division  of  anything 
of  different  color  from  the  ground  {See  Striping). 

Striping. — The  application  of  colored  lines  of  single 
or  of  various  widths  upon  a  painted  surface,  par- 
ticularly on  carriages  and  railway  cars. 

To  stripe  a  carriage  well  it  is  requisite  that  the 
workman  be  supplied  with  good  tools,  such  as 
sable-hair  or  camels '-hair  pencils  of  various 
widths  or  sizes,  and  with  paint,  or  as  commonly 
called  "color,"  mixed  in  the  best  manner  and 
ground  as  fine  as  possible,  for  no  real  fine  work 
can  be  made  with  poor  materials. 

The  actual  work  of  striping  may  be  learned  in 
a  few  moments  by  simply  watching  the  move- 
ments of  a  good  striper,  but  it  requires  extended 
practice  to  educate  the  eye  and  hand  up  to  that 


0 


STRIPING. 


standard  where  first-class  work  is  readily  turned 
out.  The  hand  alone,  no  matter  how  cunning-  it 
may  be  in  the  use  of  the  striping-  pencil,  will  never 
be  successful  without  the  aid  of  a  quick  and  ac- 
curate eye,  for  that  is  really  the  prime  mover. 


Fig.  147.  —Showing  the  Position  of  the  Hand  in  Striping 
the  Rim  of  a  Whlel. 

The  eye  must  be  quick  to  detect  the  slig-htest  varia- 
tion from  a  correct  line  and  to  chang-e  the  move- 
ment of  the  hand  before  a  wrong-  or  crooked  mark 
is  made. 

The  eye  of  the  workman  is  directed,  when  once 
the  pencil  is  laid  upon  the  work,  alternately  from 
the  gauge  line,  if  marked,  or  an  imaginary  one  if 


STRIPING. 


371 


not ;  then  to  the  heel  or  butt  of  the  pencil  where 
it  touches  the  guage  line,  resting-  here  during  the 
drawing  of  the  line,  leaving  the  point  of  the  pencil 
to  follow  the  course  of  the  butt,  which  it  will  in- 
variably do. 

The  pencil  is  held  between  the  thumb  and  fore- 
finger, and  the  middle  finger  acts  as  a  gauge  or 
guide.  The  illustration,  Fig.  147,  shows  the  hand 
in  position  while  striping  the  rim  of  a  wheel.  The 
axle  having  been  raised  upon  a  Avheel-board  (q.  v.) 
or  jack,  the  wheel  is  kept  slowly  revolving,  with 
the  left  hand,  until  the  stripe  is  complete.  Care 
must  be  taken  in  the  filling  or  charging  of  the 
pencil;  the  paint  should  be  worked  or  thinned 
upon  the  palette  until  of  an  even  consistency,  and 
the  hairs  of  the  pencil  should  be  well  straightened 
out  before  the  stripe  is  begun,  and  this  is  of  great 
importance  when  a  corner  or  angular  connection 
is  to  be  made.  When  the  paint  has  run  out  of  the 
pencil  and  refilling  becomes  necessary,  the  stripe 
should  be  overrun  for  several  inches  in  order  to 
make  the  connection  perfect.  Pencils  for  striping 
are  made  of  sable-hair,  camel-hair,  and  ox-hair. 

The  sable-hair  pencils  are  best  for  heavy  colors, 
such  as  white  lead,  etc.,  camel-hair  being  softer 
and  is  therefore  preferred  by  most  stripers.  The 
ox-hair  pencils  (made  from  the  hair  which  grows 
in  the  ear  of  the  ox),  are  best  adapted  for  heavy 
colors  on  coarse  work,  such  as  trucks,  etc.  Pencils 
can  be  purchased  ready-made,  both  round  and  flat, 
and  of  many  sizes  ;  but  an  experienced  striper  can 
generally  make  his  fine  liners,  by  cutting  up  a 
large  pencil,  much  more  to  his  satisfaction  than  he 
can  buy. 

The  flat  or  dagger  pencil  is  considered  by  most 


372 


STRIPING. 


workmen  to  be  the  best  form,  as  a  greater  amount 
of  work  can  be  done  with  it  in  a  specified  time, 
owing-  to  the  quantity  of  paint  it  will  carry. 
Stripes  from  eight  to  ten  feet  in  length  have  been 
easily  drawn  with  these  without  filling. 


Fig.  148.— Broad  Striping  Pencil. 


Broad  striping,  unless  done  with  heavy  color,  is 
best  done  with  a  camel-hair  pencil.  To  choose 
these  tools,  be  sure  that  the  hair  is  perfectly 
straight,  dark-colored,  and  not  over  two  and  one- 


Fig.  149.— Three  Sizes  of  Striping  Pencils. 


half  inches  in  length,  for  if  too  long  the  hairs  will 
drop  or  sag  down  to  such  an  extent  as  to  be  almost 
useless  ;  while  if  too  short  a  straight  line  cannot 
be  drawn.  The  old-fashioned  round  pencils  are 
still  in  use  in  many  shops,  and  we  illustrate  them 
here.  Never,  under  any  circumstances  draw  a 
striping  pencil  through  between  the  lips  to  form  a 
point,  as  many  do  when  purchasing  them,  for  it 
ruins  a  pencil  to  come  in  contact  with  warm 
spittle. 


STRIPING. 


373 


All  pencils  should  be  well  cared  for  after  use. 
It  is  a  poor  practice  to  stick  them  against  a  win- 
dow-pane with  candle  grease.  A  covered  box  to 
exclude  the  dusk  is  not  expensive,  and  in  this  the 
pencils  may  be  laid  away  in  safety,  having-  first 
g  iven  them  a  plentiful  anointing-  with  a  mixture 
of  tallow  and  sweet  oil  which  will  not  get  hard  in 
winter.  Then  have  a  piece  of  tin  or  glass  just  fit- 
ting- the  box,  on  which  to  lay  them  straight.  If  a 
pencil  gets  bent  or  out  of  shape,  it  can  be  straight- 
ened by  simply  greasing  it  and  drawing  it  between 
the  finger  and  a  warm  iron. 

The  varieties  of  stripes,  governed  by  their  width 
and  arrangement  are  very  many,  and  we  give  be- 
low a  complete  list  of  those  in  general  use.  The 
different  stripes  are  named  according  to  their 
widths,  beginning  with  the  "  hair-line,"  the  finest 
line  that  can  be  drawn  to  advantage,  and  increas- 
ing to  the  "broad  stripe,"  beyond  which  the 
stripe  is  known  by  its  measure,  as  "  three-quarter- 
inch  stripe,"  "inch  stripe,"  and  so  on  until 
those  made  above  one-and-a-half  inches  in  width 
are  called  "belts."  All  tracings  made  by  the 
striping  pencil  which  are  more  than  one-sixteenth 
of  an  inch  in  width  are  called  ' '  stripes."  All  less 
than  that  are  designated  as  "  lines." 

In  some  cases  double  stripes,  in  width  up  to  No. 
11,  are  used,  but  it  is  more  frequent  to  introduce 
smaller  stripes  or  lines  in  connection  with  them  as 
shown  in  the  following  combinations. 

When  the  marks  which  form  a  double  stripe  or 
line  are  placed  far  apart,  either  with  or  without 
the  addition  of  a  centre  line  or  stripe,  the  combi- 
nation is  then  called  "distanced." 


374 


STRIPING. 


"  Hair  line." 
"Fine  line." 
"  Medium." 
"Stout  line." 
"Round  line." 
"  Heavy  round  line." 
"  Light  stripe." 
"Narrow  stripe." 

"  Medium  stripe." 

"  Heavy  stripe." 

"  Broad  stripe." 
"  Double  fine  line." 
"  Double  medium  line. 


Double  stout  line." 


Double  round  line. 


"  Double  light  stripe. 


Fig.  150.— Various  Striping  Lines. 


STRIPING.  375 

Ornamental  stripes  are  used  mostly  on  business 
wagons  or  sleighs,  almost  all  such  work  being 
done  by  patterns.    The  ornamental  stripes  are 


Fig.  151.— Striping  for  Busi-   Fig.  152.— Another  Method 
ness- Wagon  Gears.  of  Striping  Gears. 

first  drawn  on  paper,  and  then  each  mark  of  the 
lead-pencil  is  punctured  with  a  pin,  the  holes  being 
made  as  closely  together  as  possible.    This  pat- 


376  STRIPING. 

tern  is  then  laid  on  the  surface  to  be  ornamented, 
and  rubbed  over  with  a  small  pounce  bag  (q.  v.). 
A  fine  ornamenting  pencil  is  then  used,  with  which 
to  execute  the  pattern.  Good  judgment  is  neces- 
sary in  the  application  of  striping,  and  many  con- 
ditions must  be  taken  into  account  in  determining 
the  color,  width,  and  combinations  of  the  stripes. 
The  painter  should  look  well  to  the  form  of  the 
work,  its  weight,  and  the  effect  his  striping  will 
have  on  it.  The  wheels  of  a  light  trotting  wagon 
or  sulk^r  do  not  require  a  broad  stripe  on  each 
side  of  the  spokes  to  make  them  look  lighter  and 
more  slender  than  they  really  are,  but,  by  the 
same  means,  the  appearance  of  a  heavy  wheel 
may  be  lightened  and  improved.  The  style  and 
arrangement  of  the  striping  on  a  farm  or  busi- 
ness wagon  would  be  entirely  out  of  place  on  a  fine 
pleasure  carriage. 
Odd  Styles  of  Striping  for  Carriage  Parts.— 

Half -and- Half. — This  is  done  by  striping  one- 
half  of  each  spoke  lengthwise  with  a  color  differ- 
ent from  the  ground- work.  If  the  ground  be 
straw  color  and  a  light  brown  is  selected  for  strip- 
ing, then  run  the  brown  from  hub  to  felloe  on  the 
back  half  of  the  spokes,  and  stripe  the  remainder 
of  the  carriage  part  in  the  usual  way.  The  brown 
may  be  run  on  the  dead  color,  over  colors  that 
cover  solidly  without  varnish  in  their  mixture. 
Again,  the  spokes  may  be  halved  by  carrying  the 
brown,  or  any  other  color,  half  way  from  the  hub 
to  the  felloe,  covering  the  spoke  all  around. 

Dotted  Line. — A  fine  line  put  at  centres  of  the 
several  parts.  It  is  kept  an  inch  or  more  from 
the  hub  and  felloe,  and  ends  have  one  or  two  dots 
of  the  same  color. 


STRIPING. 


Dotted  and  Forked. — Same  as  the  former,  ex- 
cept that  it  has  a  double  fork  at  the  centre,  which 
forms  a  diamond,  or  any  other  break  may  be 
placed  at  the  centre  that  is  easy  to  put  on. 

Dotted  and  Scrolled. — This  is  a  single  line, 
dotted  as  before,  and  having-  the  fronts  of  spokes 
and  other  suitable  places  varied  by  the  introduc- 
tion of  simple  scrolls,  touched  up  with  colors  con- 
trasting* with  the  striping-  color. 

Double  Fine  Line,  Ornamented. — Which  may 
be  done  at  the  centres  of  the  spokes,  or  at  centre 
or  ends  on  the  other  parts,  by  plain  stripes  or 
scrolls. 

Triple  Lines. — Three  fine  lines,  atone  time,  the 
centre  one  slig-htly  the  heavier,  and  at  another  the 
outside  lines  the  largest,  but  in  both  cases  the 
centre  line  is  a  half  inch  the  long-er  at  each  end, 
and  is  dotted. 

Broken  Broad  Line. — This  is  a  broad  line  run 
on  and  afterwards  cut  in  two  at  the  centre  with 
the  ground  color,  making-  a  half-inch  opening-. 
Edg-e,  or  distance  fine  lines  are  then  run  on,  and 
are  joined  by  cross  lines  at  the  opening-  of  the 
broad  line,  or  the  edg-e  and  distance  lines  may  be 
omitted,  and  the  break  in  the  broad  line  filled  with 
short  fine  lines  at  right  angles  to  the  broad  line, 
the  middle  one  to  be  somewhat  the  long-er. 

Short  Broad  Line. — Broad  line  on  centre  of 
spokes,  to  be  one-third  the  leng-th  of  same,  and 
the  spaces  above  and  below  the  broad  line  filled 
with  fine  lines  forked  to  the  width  of  broad  stripe. 

Having-  given  a  few  examples  of  the  treatment 
of  a  single  line  or  Stripe,  it  will  be  in  place  to  show 
the  effect  of  a  repetition  of  a  single  figure  or  form, 
composed  of  a  single  line,  and  as  here  given  the 


378 


STRIPING. 


Fig.  154.— Corner  Designs  for  Striping. 


STRIPING. 


379 


completed  drawing-  represents  what  is  termed  a 
border.  The  border  is  used  chiefly  on  sleigh 
bodies  and  showy  wagon  work,  but  occasionally 
is  in  fashion  for  carriages.  In  the  styles  here 
shown,  No.  1  is  after  the  style  of  the  Greek  Fret 
or  Meander,  and  it  will  be  readily  noticed  that  the 
single  form  resembles  the  letter  S,  but  it  has 
square  instead  of  round  corners.  The  dotted  lines 
give  the  spacing1  and  proportions.  There  are  five 
equal  horizontal  spaces,  and  six  equal  vertical 
spaces.  For  the  horizontal  stripes  of  the  pattern, 
the  first,  third  and  fifth  spaces  are  taken,  and  for 
the  vertical  stripes,  counting  from  the  left,  the 
first,  fourth  and  sixth  spaces  are  used.  The 
spaces  are,  therefore,  the  same  width  as  the  run- 
ning line. 

No.  2  was  produced  by  doubling  the  former  key 
pattern;  that  is,  there  are  two  of  the  S  forms 
brought  together,  which  produce  a  resemblance  to 
the  block  T.  The  lines  and  spaces  are  otherwise 
the  same  as  in  No.  1 

No.  3  is  identical  with  No.  1,  when  first  laid  out, 
the  only  change  being  the  cutting  of  the  corners 
at  an  angle,  and  yet  so  slight  an  alteration  is 
sufficient  to  make  quite  a  different  border. 

No.  4  is  also  like  No.  1,  with  the  exception  that 
it  has  inclined  instead  of  vertical  lines.  The  lines 
are  at  angle  of  65°.  No.  2  may  be  similarly 
treated. 

In  No.  5,  there  is  presented  an  extra  bend,  or 
block  form,  which  it  will  be  seen  is  nothing  more 
than  a  change  of  the  inner  horizontal  line,  from  a 
single  straight  line  to  the  embattled  shape.  This 
renders  the  border  a  trifle  more  difficult  of  execu- 
tion, but  more  pleasant  when  completed. 


380 


STRIPING  PEN. 


String. — A  horizontal  band  or  border. 

Striping  Pen. — An  ordinary  drawing-  pen  may  be 
used  for  striping',  but  a  patent  pen,  so  arranged 
that  the  color  was  regulated  in  its  flow  by  set 


JSo.  4. 


No.  5. 

Fig.  153.— Borders  or  Belts. 

screws,  etc.,  was  once  brought  out  by  one  Cross- 
ingham,  of  Croton  Falls,  N.  Y.,  but  he  did  not 
make  a  success  of  the  instrument  on  the  market, 
although  excellent  work  could  be  done  with  it.  A 


SURFACER. 


381 


good  striper  needs  no  mechanical  device,  his  eye 
and  hand  alone  being  sufficient  to  produce  the 
best  results. 

Sugar  of  Lead. — A  drier  for  paints.  It  should  be 
ground  fine,  and  may  be  used  in  delicate  colors 
such  as  lakes,  but  if  used  in  glazing  or  in  varnish 
it  is  apt  to  cause  pitting.  Its  use  in  late  years  is 
limited,  owing  to  the  perfection  to  which  liquid 
driers  have  been  brought. 

Surfacer. — Liquid  substance  or  substances  composed 
of  coarse  pigments,  as  ochre  or  similar  to  ochre, 
which  are  used  to  level  up  or  load  the  grain  of  the 
wood,  after  the  priming  or  first  coat  has  been  ap- 
plied. A  surfacer  requires  to  be  leveled  down 
with  lump  pumice-stone  and  water.  In  the  sys- 
tem of  carriage  painting  brought  out  by  Murphy 
&  Co.,  of  Newark,  N.  J.,  there  are  four  surfacers 
used,  namely :  1st,  Surfacer  A — Priming  coat ; 
2d,  Surfacer  B — Loading  coat ;  3d,  Surfacer  C — 
Leveling  coat ;  4th — Sealing  coat.  These  four 
surfacers — the  first  designed  to  prime  the  wood 
and  to  permeate  its  fibres;  the  second  designed  to 
load  the  pores  of  the  grain;  the  third  designed  to 
level  the  surface;  and  the  fourth  to  seal  it  over 
— constitute  a  course  of  kindred  coatings,  which 
combine  to  produce  a  surface  that  for  smoothness, 
solidity  and  wearing  quality  is  unsurpassed. 

Sweating. — The  technical  term  applied  to  a  greasy 
gloss  which  makes  its  appearance  upon  a  var- 
nished surface  after  it  has  been  rubbed  and 
allowed  to  stand.  The  cause  of  sweating  is  the 
reappearance  of  the  gloss,  showing  that  the  var- 
nish is  not  hard  enough  to  rub  and  receive  another 


382 


SWORD  PENCILS. 


coat.  The  sweating-  of  rubbing- varnish  is  a 
common  occurrence,  and  the  inexperienced  painter 
who  varnishes  over  a  sweated  surface  would  no 
doubt  be  surprised  to  see  his  work  "  enameled," 
"  crinkled  up,"  or  "  like  corduroy."  The  remedy 
for  this  trouble,  if  time  cannot  be  given  for  the 
varnish  to  harden,  is  to  rub  it  lightly,  wash  clean, 
and  immediately  apply  the  varnish — not  giving  it 
time  to  sweat. 

Sword  Pencils. — Or  as  called  by  some  dagger  pen- 
cils. These  cannot  be  purchased  ready-made,  as 
they  should  be  made,  therefore  we  will  explain 
how  to  make  them.  Take  a  small  piece  of  wood 
— hickory  is  best — and  form  a  handle  as  shown  in 
the  engraving,  having  it  flat,  instead  of  round  ; 
split  it  edgewise  to  the  depth  of  say  f  of  an  inch  ; 
then,  having  some  good  sable  or  camePs-hair  at 


Fig.  154.— Sword  Pencils. 


hand,  take  a  sufficient  quantity  to  fill  the  split 
with  five  or  six  layers  of  hair,  straighten  the  butt 
ends  by  dropping  the  hair  loosely  upon  the  bench 
or  table,  and  dip  that  end  into  some  melted  glue, 
then,  having  opened  the  split  by  the  insertion  of 
a  pin  at  its  inner  end,  lay  the  glued  end  of  the 
hairs  evenly  within  it ;  pull  out  the  pin,  to  allow 
the  split  to  close,  and  tie  a  piece  of  silk  or  thread 
around,  as  shown  at  A  to  hold  firmly  together. 
Do  not  cut  the  extreme  point,  if  possible  to  get 
along  without  it.  If  cutting  must  be  done  to  make 


SYSSING. 


383 


a  point,  cut  just  as  little  as  possible ;  grease  the 
pencil,  draw  it  between  the  finger  and  a  warm 
iron  and  it  is  ready  for  use. 
How  to  Use  Them. — Fill  the  pencil,  as  usual,  with 
color,  and  holding  it  edgewise  to  the  work,  draw 
a  line  with  it  until  by  experience  you  know  just  the 
amount  of  pressure  to  put  on,  for  the  less  pres- 
sure the  finer  the  line,  and  vice  versa.  By  keeping 
a  steady  pressure  upon  the  pencil  and  allowing 
about  one-half  the  length  of  the  hair  only  to  touch 
the  work,  a  uniform  stripe  man}^  feet  in  length 
may  be  drawn.  The  mass  of  hair  acts  as  a  reser- 
voir for  the  paint.  These  pencils  are  coming  into 
use  in  most  of  the  best  shops,  and  those  who  have 
acquired  the  knack  of  ha  ndling  them  say  they  can 
do  more  and  better  work  with  them  than  with  the 
old  style  pencils.  It  requires  some  considerable 
practice  to  master  the  art,  however. 

Syssing  or  Cissing. — A  term  employed  by  English 
painters,  being  synonymous  with  "  crawling  "  as 
used  in  America,  but  applied  more  particularly  to 
this  trouble  in  connection  with  repair  work,  and 
under  certain  conditions.  It  is  a  common  plan 
for  an  English  painter,  when  a  job  is  brought  to 
him  for  varnishing  only,  to  give  it  a  thin  coating, 
first,  of  a  mixture  of  gold-size  varnish  and  tur- 
pentine, made  up  as  wanted.  The  object  of  this 
is  to  set  the  dirt  or  kill  any  grease  that  may  be 
hanging  around  it.  If  this  is  not  flatted  down, 
i.  e.,  rubbed  with  pumice  powder — and  generally  it 
is  not,  because  it  is  too  thin  for  flatting — the  var- 
nish laid  over  it  will  run  up  in  lumps,  which  is 
called  "  syssing  "  and  of  course  the  job  is  spoiled, 
there  being  no  remedy  but  to  rub  off  the  varnish  and 


SYSSING. 


varnish  again  properly.  The  painter  may  save 
himself  all  this  trouble  by  putting'  about  two 
tablespoonfuls  of  turpentine  into  a  pail  of  water 
and  washing"  off  the  work  before  attempting"  to  lay 
the  varnish.  "  Syssing-  "  will  occur  on  any  work 
not  rubbed  with  pumice  as  it  should  be. 


385 


T 

Tacky- — A  term  used  to  express  the  state  of  a  var- 
nished or  sized  surface.  When  the  varnish  or 
size  is  spread  upon  a  surface,  it  thickens,  or  '  'sets, " 
and  rapidly  hastens  on  to  that  state  known  as  dry, 
but  just  before  it  reaches  that  dry  state,  it  is  tacky, 
i.  e.,  sticky.  The  hand  may  pass  over  it  lightly 
without  disturbing-  it  but  if  the  finger  be  placed 
directly  upon  the  size  or  varnish  it  will  adhere. 
It  is  then  ready  to  receive  gold  leaf,  bronze,  or 
whatever  other  ornament  is  desired. 

Tadpoles. — A  name  given  to  specks  which  appear 
at  times  on  a  varnished  surface,  the  same  being 
of  the  shape  of  the  tadpole,  i.  e.,  a  round  spot, 
with  an  elongation  or  tail.  This  trouble  is  due  to 
defects  in  the  under  coat ;  when  small  specks  in 
the  under  coat  are  rubbed  down  level,  the  varnish 
at  that  spot  is  not  as  hard  as  the  surrounding  sur- 
face and  consequently  sweat  occurs,  which  acts 
on  the  finishing  varnish  put  over  it,  and  little 
mounds  with  a  comet-like  tail  are  seen.  To 
remedy  this,  always  give  the  work  a  light  rubbing 
with  a  pumice  rag  just  before  the  varnishing  is 
begun,  wash  and  dry  well  and  no  tadpoles  will 
appear. 


Tan  Color. — A  color  of  oak  bark,  made  by  mixing 
five  parts  burnt  sienna,  two  of  yellow,  and  one  of 
raw  umber. 


386 


TEMPLET. 


Tertiary  Colors-— There  are  three  only,  namely  : 
citrine,  russet  and  olive.  Each  of  these  is  com- 
posed of,  or  can  be  resolved  into,  either  two  sec- 
ondary colors  or  the  three  primaries  :  thus,  citrine 
consists  of  green  and  orange,  or  of  a  predominant 
yellow  with  blue  and  red  ;  russet  is  compounded  of 
orange  and  purple,  or  of  a  predominant  red  with 
blue  and  yellow  ;  and  olive  is  composed  of  purple 
and  green,  or  of  a  predominant  blue  with  yellow 
and  red. 

Terra-Verte. — A  bluish-green  ochre,  not  very  bright 
but  quite  durable.  There  are  several  varieties  of 
this  pigment,  viz :  green  bice,  holly  green,  ver- 
detto,  verona  green,  etc.  When  calcined  it  forms 
another  pigment  known  as  verona  brown. 

Templet  {Hutchinson' 's  Patent) . — A  sheet  of  metal 
through  which  perforations  are  made  correspond- 
ing with  lines  which  go  to  make  up  the  alphabet, 
and  through  which  a  pencil  point  is  drawn  to 
sketch  out  a  skeleton  form  of  any  desired  letter — 
plain  block.    It  is  convenient  for  amateurs. 

Tempera  Colors. — Colors  in  nearly  their  natural 
state,  finely  ground  in  spirits,  and  crushed  to  pow- 
der. They  are  generally  called  powdered  colors. 
Mixed  with  gum  they  form  the  water-colors  of  an 
artist. 

Thinning. — Spirits  of  turpentine  is  used  principally 
for  thinning  paint,  and  there  seems  to  be  nothing 
to  equal  it.  However,  in  preparing  the  thinning 
for  striping  or  lettering,  a  few  drops  of  oil  added 
to  the  turpentine  will  cause  the  pencil  to  work 
better,  and  this  small  percentage  will  in  no  wise 
affect  the  drying. 


TINT, 


387 


Tie-— The  connecting-  band  of  a  stencil  plate;  the 
parts  which  hold  the  stencil  together  (See  Stencil- 
ing). 

Tint.— Any  color  added  to  white  forms  a  tint.  Also 
a  slight  coloring-  or  tincture  distinct  from  tne 
ground  or  principal  color. 
Some  of  the  tints  in  common  use  may  be  of 
value  as  follows : 
Straw  Color.— "White  lead,  Massicot  (in  oil). 
Whiting,  Dutch  Pink  (in  distemper). 
"        Chrome  Yellow. 
Lavender,  Lilac  and  French  Grays.— Produced 
by  the  predominance  of  white,  blue  or  red. 
White,  Lake,  Indigo. 

"     Lake,  Prussian  Blue. 
"     Indian  Red,  Prussian  Blue. 
"     Vermilion,  Prussian  Blue. 
"     Indigo,  Rose  Pink. 
Pearl  Gray.— White,  Black,  Prussian  Blue. 
Gray  Tints.— Of  a  blue  hue. 
White,  Verditer. 
"     Blue  Black. 
"     Lamp  Black. 
"  Indigo. 
Gray  Tints.— Of  a  brown  hue. 
White,  Madder  Brown,  Prus.  Blue. 

"    Yellow  Ochre. 

"     Indian  Red,  Indigo. 

"     Light  Red,  Prussian  Blue. 

"     Burnt  Sienna,  Lake,  Indigo. 

Brown  Tints.— White,  Lake,  Prussian  Blue,  Yellow 
Ochre. 

White,  Lake,  Indigo,  Yellow  Ochre. 

"     Raw  Sienna,  Madder  Lake,  Prussian  Blue. 


388 


TINT. 


Brown  Tints — Continued. 
White,  Light  Red,  Indigo. 

"     Vandyke  Brown,  Lake,  Indigo. 
"     Burnt  Sienna,  Indigo. 

Lake. 

Green  Tint.— White,  Italian  Pink,  Antwerp  Blue. 

"     Prussian  Blue,  Italian  Pink. 
"    Yellow  Ochre,  Indigo. 
"     Burnt  Sienna,  Indigo. 
"     Brown  Pink,  Indigo. 
"    Raw  Umber,  Indigo. 
Pea  Green. — White,  French  Green. 

"     Olympian  Green. 
"     Brunswick  Green. 
"     Prus.  Blue,  Chrome  Yellow. 
Sage  Green. — White,  Prussian  Blue,  Raw  Umber. 

"  Antwerp  Blue,  Stone  Ochre. 
Olive  Green. — White,  Raw  Umber,  Prussian  Blue. 
Orange  Tints. — White,  French  Yeilow. 

"     Orange  Lead. 
"     Dutch  Pink. 
"     Chrome  Yellow,  Vermilion. 
Pink  Tints.— White,  Rose  Pink. 

"     Crimson  Lake. 
"     Scarlet  Lake. 
Salmon  Color. — White,  Venetian  Red. 

"  Vermilion. 
Peach  Tints. — White,  Vermilion,  Indian  Red,  Pur- 
ple, Brown. 

White,  Vermilion,  Indian  Red,  Purple,  Brown  and 
Burnt  Stone  Ochre. 
Violet  Tints. — White,  Vermilion,  Prussian  Blue, 
Lampblack. 


TRACEOTYPES. 


389 


Chocolate. — White,  Spanish  Brown,  Venetian  Red, 

Vegetable  Black. 
Sky  Blue. — White,  Prussian  Blue. 
Flesh  Tint. — White,  Light  Red,  Yellow  Ochre. 

White,  Lake,  Vermilion,  Naples  Yellow. 
Drab  and  Stone  Color. — White,  Burnt  Umber. 

"     Raw  Umber. 
"     Yellow  Ochre. 
White,  Yellow  Ochre,  Lampblack. 
White,  Raw  Umber,  Lampblack. 
Lead  Color. — W^hite,  Black. 

"  Black,  Indigo. 
It  must  of  course  be  understood  that  the  colors 
are  not  mixed  in  equal  quantities,  but  in  such 
proportions  as  will  produce  the  required  tint ;  the 
slightest  predominance  of  any  one  of  the  pigments 
gives  the  prevailing  tone  of  the  tints,  while  the 
addition  of  a  further  quantity  of  white  produces 
all  the  numerous  gradations,  from  lavender  and 
lilac  to  French  gray. 

'  All  colors  in  distemper  are  lighter  when  dry 
than  they  appear  in  a  wet  condition. 

By  mixing  white  with  the  original  color  a  tint  is 
made  ;  by  mixing  color  with  color,  compound  colors 
or  hues  are  formed ;  wThile  from  the  mixture  of 
colors  or  tints  with  black,  shades  result. 

Traceotypes- — The  letters  of  the  alphabet  in  vari- 
ous styles  and  sizes,  cut  out  of  pasteboard,  and 
used  by  laying  them  on  the  wrork  and  marking 
around  them.  For  a  beginner  these  may  be  of 
value,  but  a  professional  has  no  use  for  them. 

Transfer  Ornament- — A  design  or  ornament  of 
any  kind,  painted  or  printed  upon  paper  which  has 
been  suitably  prepared,  and  which  can  afterwards 


TRANSFER  ORNAMENT. 


be  transferred  to  another  surface.  To  enable  the 
painter  to '  prepare  his  own  transfers,  so  as  to 
economize  time,  while  the  job  is  being*  painted, 
first  procure  some  unsized  letter  paper  and  flow 
upon  one  side  a  thin  layer  of  mucilage  or  dissolved 
gum  arable ;  lay  this  aside  to  dry,  oat  of  the  way 
of  dust.  Then  lay  out  the  design  and  paint  it  in 
the  same  manner  as  if  putting  it  upon  the  carriage 
panel.  Next,  procure  some  soft  yet  moderately 
thin  blotting  paper— lithograph  paper  will  answer 
— and  coat  one  side  of  that  with  mucilage  or  gum 
as  before,  let  dry,  and  when  the  paint  of  the  design 
is  dry,  slightly  moisten  the  gum  on  the  blotting 
paper,  and  lay  the  painted  ornament  face  down 
upon  it,  pressing  it  firmly  or  rubbing  it  gently 
with  a  smooth  hard  substance.  Let  this  dry, 
after  which  dampen  the  back,  i.  e.,  the  paper  on 
which  the  design  was  painted,  and  remove  the 
paper  in  the  same  manner  as  if  it  was  a  transfer  or 
decalcomanie  picture.  This  transfers  the  painting 
face  down  to  the  soft  paper.  It  may  now  be  laid 
aside  until  the  job  is  ready  to  receive  it ;  when  that 
time  comes  transfer  it  to  the  panel  by  simply  siz- 
ing the  ornament  with  either  transfer  cement,  or 
quick-drying  varnish,  in  the  same  manner  as  a 
transfer  ornament  would  be  done.  The  face  of  the 
design  will  be  to  all  appearance  the  same  as  if 
painted  directly  upon  the  panel. 

Transfer  ornaments,  as  purchased  from  the 
dealers,  are  made  by  the  lithographic  process,  as 
follows  : 

The  first  step  in  the  process,  after  making  the 
design,  is  to  take  an  outline  drawing.  This  draw- 
ing is  then  transferred  to  as  many  stones  as  there 
are  colors  in  the  ornament.    Before  the  stone 


TRANSFER  PAPER. 


391 


receives  the  outlines  it  must  be  polished  to  a 
glass}^  smoothness  with  pumice-stone.  The  best 
work  requires  from  twelve  to  twenty  stones,  cost- 
ing* about  $80  each.  Crayon  is  now  covered  over 
such  portions  of  the  stone  as  are  to  receive  a 
certain  color — the  brown  shading"  of  a  scroll,  or 
the  blue  sky  of  a  landscape  it  may  be — which, 
when  the  stone  has  been  placed  under  acid,  are 
the  only  portions  of  its  surface  that  will  receive, 
or  transfer  to  paper,  any  color  whatever.  The 
next  stone  is  prepared  in  the  same  way,  and  so  on 
until  the  stones  are  ready.  The  first  stone  is  then 
placed  upon  the  bed  of  the  press,  which  is  the  last 
in  a  chromo-lithograph,  being  transposed  that  the 
ornament  may  show  perfect  when  transferred. 
The  color  having  been  spread  over  it  with  a  roller, 
as  in  type  printing,  the  sheets  of  prepared  paper, 
upon  which  the  picture  is  to  be  printed,  are 
placed  upon  it,  one  by  one,  and  an  impression 
taken.  When  the  whole  edition  has  received  the 
first  color,  the  second  stone  takes  the  place  of  the 
first,  and  the  sheets  are  run  through  the  press 
again,  and  the  second  color  received.  The  second 
stone  is  then  replaced  by  the  third,  and  so  on 
until  the  picture  is  finished.  The  paper  is 
prepared  with  a  coating  of  gum  that  can  easily  be 
dissolved  by  water.  Decalcomanie  is  the  same 
thing  as  transfer  ornaments.  It  is  a  French 
name,  and  more  particularly  used  in  connection 
with  designs  of  flowers,  landscapes,  etc. 

Transfer  Paper. — Paper  so  prepared  that  by  a  light 
pressure  upon  it  with  a  hard  point  of  pencil  or 
other  material,  the  coloring  matter  will  be  trans- 
ferred to  the  surface  upon  which  it  is  laid.  Used 
for  copying  a  print  or  drawing,  by  laying  the 


392 


TRANSPARENT  PAPER. 


paper  upon  a  sheet  of  white  paper,  the  print  then 
being*  laid  over  all,  and  pinned  securely  in  posi- 
tion. The  outlines  of  the  print  are  then  traced 
with  a  blunt  needle  point. 

To  make  transfer  paper — rub  a  piece  of  ordinary 
printing-  or  newspaper  over  with  lard  or  tallow  to 
well  grease  it,  then  rub  in  any  colored  dry  pigment 
desired,  lampblack  being  one  of  the  best ;  when 
the  pigment  has  been  well  rubbed  in,  wipe  off  the 
superfluous  coloring  matter. 
Transparent  Paper.— This  is  used  by  artists  and 
draughtsmen  in  copying'  drawings,  etc.,  and  one  of 
the  best  known  methods  of  preparing  it  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Take  Canadian  balsam  dissolved  in  tur- 
pentine,and  apply  to  ordinary  white  printing  paper 
a  thin  coating  so  as  to  permeate  it  thoroughly, 
after  which,  with  a  thicker  solution  of  the  same, 
go  over  both  sides  of  the  paper,  keeping  the  paper 
warm  by  performing  the  operation  near  a  fire.  A 
third  and  perhaps  a  fourth  coat  may  be  applied 
until  the  texture  of  the  paper  is  seen  to  merge 
into  a  homogeneous  translucency.  Paper  pre- 
pared according  to  this  process  is  said  to  come 
nearer  than  any  other  to  the  highest  standard  of 
perfection  in  transparent  paper.  Care  must  be 
used  in  making,  as  the  materials  are  highly  inflam- 
mable. 

Transparent  Colors-— It  is  well  understood  that 
transparency  in  the  proper  sense  is  opposed  to 
opaqueness.  A  transparent  body — strictly  speak- 
ing— suffers  rays  of  light  to  pass  through  it,  so 
that  objects  can  be  seen  distinctly. 

Air,  water,  and  glass  are  examples  of  transpa- 
rent bodies. 

The  word,  however,  is  sufficiently  accurate  for 


TRANSPARENT  COLORS. 


393 


all  practical  purposes,  and,  although  in  the  use  of 
a  transparent  color  we  cannot  see  the  ground  color 
over  which  it  is  laid,  still  the  ground  work  exerts 
a  modifying  influence  on  the  so-called  transparent 
color,  and  the  educated  eye  of  the  painter  sees  the 
ground  color,  or  at  least  is  conscious  of  its  modi- 
fying effect  on  the  superimposed  color.  There  is  a 
mutual  support  between  the  two,  a  giving  and 
taking,  the  end  sought  being  what  painters  term 
depth  and  richness,  which  cannot  be  gained  by  an 
opaque  or  heavy-bodied  color. 

An  opaque  color  presents  to  the  eye  a  compact 
film,  while  the  beauty  of  a  glazing  color  is  due  to 
its  property  of  lying  loosely,  so  to  speak,  and  as 
varnish  is  employed  the  color  is  asserted  by  the 
transparent  medium. 

The  painter  may  obtain  transparent  colors  in 
crimson,  scarlet,  purple,  blue,  yellow,  green,  and 
brown,  and  semi-transparent  ones  of  less  purity  of 
tone  ;  and  as  they  may  be  used  clear,  over  various 
grounds,  mixed  with  one  another,  or  modified  by 
small  proportions  of  opaque  colors,  every  desired 
effect  presented  in  nature  may  be  correctly  imi- 
tated, and  the  extreme  richness  be  produced  on 
surface  work. 

Carmine  and  the  lakes,  from  cochineal  and  the 
madder  root,  supply  all  that  is  desirable  in  red . 

Dutch  pink,  Italian  pink,  and  patent  yellow 
furnish  the  yellow  tones,  and  ultramarine  stands 
unrivalled  as  a  blue. 

Verdigris,  emerald  green,  and  green  lake  add  to 
the  list  transparent  greens  of  great  beauty  ;  and 
asphaltum  has  no  equal  among  the  browns. 
Raw  sienna  supplies  a  dull  yellow,  and  burnt 
sienna  a  very  valuable  brown  orange.    The  list 


TRANSPARENT  COLORS. 

might  be  somewhat  enlarged,  but  those  given 
comprise  those  which  are  most  useful. 

An  opaque  color  may  be  rendered  semi-trans- 
parent by  using  a  large  proportion  of  the  vehicle 
to  that  of  color,  but  such  mixtures  are  compara- 
tively of  but  trifling  value. 

Transparent  colors  are  usually  applied  so  as  to 
retain  the  tone  of  the  pigment,  as  it  appears  when 
moistened  with  oil  or  varnish.  Thus  scarlet, 
crimson,  and  purple-toned  lake  are  painted  over 
grounds  of  light  and  deep  vermilion,  Indian  and 
Tuscan  red,  and  as  greater  depth  of  color  is  desired, 
the  change  is  made  in  the  ground  color.  A  very 
brilliant  red  is  produced  by  giving  a  thin  wash  of 
carmine  over  vermilion,  and  the  same  shade  of 
carmine  may  be  deepened  through  browns  of 
varying  depths,  the  limit  being  black.  We  may 
glaze  lake  over  blue,  or  blue  over  lake,  and  pro- 
duce purple  or  violet  hues,  but  this  is  not  generally 
practised  outside  of  striping  and  ornamenting. 
The  red -toned  lakes  place  at  the  disposal  of  the 
painter  a  wealth  of  warm  glazing  colors  ;  in  fact, 
nothing  better  could  be  imagined. 

Next  in  order  is  yellow,  which  is  termed  an 
advancing  color,  and  when  free  from  the  orange 
cast,  and  is  glazed  over  white  or  delicately  tinted 
grounds,  produces  brilliancy  without  gaudiness. 

Patent  yellow  gives  clear,  white  tones.  Dutch 
pink  and  yellow  lake,  when  "  wet  up,"  are  of  a 
dull  yellow,  and  may  be  glazed  over  drab  ground- 
colors, with  good  effect,  but  they  are  at  present 
employed  to  add  richness  to  what  are  termed  sea, 
bottle,  and  olive  greens.  In  this  arrangement,  the 
true  color  of  the  yellow  is  hidden,  and  its  yellow 
tone  interposes  between  the  foundation  color  and 


TRANSPARENT  COLORS. 


395 


the  eye,  a  yellow  medium  thus  producing  trans- 
parency and  richness  that  cannot  be  gained  by 
any  other  means. 

The  soft  mild  green,  produced  by  English  var- 
nish over  black,  is  well  known  to  coach  painters, 
and  they  know  also,  that  the  precise  tone  cannot 
be  imitated. 

A  pure,  dark,  rich  blue,  is  supplied  by  ultrama- 
rine blue.  It  may  be  classed  as  more  retiring  than 
many  shades  of  green  that  are  popular,  and  yet 
blue  is  but  little  used  for  panels. 

It  is  usually  glazed  over  dark  lead  color  and 
mixtures  of  Prussian  or  Antwerp  blue  and  white. 

But  that  is  by  no  means  the  limit,  as  it  may  be 
successfully  glazed  over  white,  straw  color,  yellow, 
orange,  etc.,  etc. 

Verdigris  is  a  perfectly  transparent  bluish 
green,  of  exceeding  beauty,  and  in  former  times 
was  in  constant  use  by  coach  painters  for  panels  of 
heavy  work. 

Ornamental  painters  are  now  lavish  of  it,  on 
gold  and  silver  leaf,  and  it  has  almost  lost  its 
place  as  a  panel  color. 

Among  the  browns,  asphaltum  is  the  most 
transparent,  and  when  painted  over  a  dark 
groundwork,  imparts  richness,  all  its  own. 

Transparent  colors  are  sometimes  modified  or 
changed  by  the  addition  of  those  that  are  opaque. 
Thus,  burnt  umber  and  yellow  lake,  or  Dutch 
pink,  produce  a  soft  warm  brown ;  Prussian  blue 
gives  a  rich  green,  and  so  on.  The  reverse  of  this 
process  is  to  add  a  small  proportion  of  the  trans- 
parent to  the  opaque  color,  as  lake  added  to  Indian 
or  Tuscan  red,  and  to  the  strong-bodied,  mixed 
browns.  Of  course  this  is  in  the  line  of  economy, the 


396 


TUBE  COLORS. 


purpose  being-  to  retain  the  body  or  covering  power 
of  the  opaque  color,  and  a  tinge  of  richness  from  the 
transparent  one.  There  is  scarcely  a  limit  to  the 
variety  that  may  be  produced,  and  hence  the 
skilled  painter  has  no  difficulty  in  bringing  out 
new  effects  in  colors. 


Brick  Head- 


Trencher. — A  name  often  given  to  the 
er  "  or  lining  brush  (which  see). 

Tube  Colors. — Colors  ground  in  oil, 
and  for  convenience  in  handling 
are  put  up  in  long  metal  tubes, 
having  a  screw  cap  upon  one  end. 
By  compressing  the  sides  of  the 
soft  metal  tube  the  color  is  ejected, 
when  the  cap  may  be  replaced  and 
in  this  condition  will  keep  for  a  long 
time.  Artists  seldom  think  of 
using  any  other  colors  in  these 
days,  and  the  carriage  painter  will 
find  them  excellent  for  striping, 
etc.  Carmine,  ultramarine  and  a 
few  other  expensive  colors  are  now 
put  up  in  collapsable  tubes  of  this 
description  holding  a  pound  of 
color. 

Turner's  Yellow.— (See  Patent  Yel- 
loiv,  the  same  thing.) 

Touching  Up. — The  act  of  repairing  parts  of  a 
piece  of  work  where  the  painting  is  broken  or  worn 
off.  This  often  occurs  in  the  rubbing  process, 
sharp  corners  or  edges  are  laid  bare  sometimes  to 
the  wood,  and  "touching  up"  must  be  done  to 
hide  these  defects. 

Many  painters  on  this  account  are  disinclined  to 


TURKEY  UMBER. 


397 


use  japan  because,  as  they  say,  of  trouble  in 
matching*  the  jet  color  if  it  is  necessary  to  "  touch 
up."    But  this  difficulty  is  easily  overcome. 

In  the  first  place  the  job  should  be— at  the  time 
for  the  last  coat  of  varnish — so  level,  and  so  well 
rubbed,  that  no  "  touching-  up "  is  necessary. 
However,  accident  may  cause  these  places,  and  to 
cover  them,  first  g-o  over  with  a  thin  coat  of  quick- 
drying-  ivory-black,  then  coat  again  with  common 
asphaltum — which  can  be  procured  at  any  paint 
store — thinned  down  with  turpentine  and  applied 
with  a  small  camel 's-hair  brush ;  the  spot  will  then 
be  the  same  color  as  the  other  parts  of  the  job. 

Turkey  Umber.  —  A  native  earth  found  in  the 
Roman  province  of  Umbria  (whence  its  name)  and 
in  the  Island  of  Cyprus.  The  native  earth,  called 
raw  umber,  is  in  light  brown  lumps,  and  is  roasted 
to  produce  burnt  umber.  Immense  deposits  of 
umber  are  found  in  this  country,  but  none  of  them 
approach  that  from  Cyprus  in  brightness  of  color, 
and  yet  they  are  sold,  both  dry  and  ground  in  oil, 
and  as  an  adulterant  of  the  foreign  article. 

Turpentine- — One  of  the  products  of  the  pine  tree, 
of  which  there  are  four — rosin,  crude  turpentine, 
tar  and  pitch.  Spirits  of  turpentine  presents  a 
fine  illustration  of  one  of  the  marvelous  revela- 
tions made  known  by  chemical  science.  The  con- 
stituents of  this  liquid  and  of  the  oil  of  lemons  are 
hydrogen  and  carbon  in  precisely  the  same  pro- 
portions, and  yet  no  means  of  co  averting  the  one 
into  the  other  has  ever  been  discovered.  Nature, 
mighty  alchemist  that  she  is,  manufactures  in  her 
secret  laboratory,  from  the  same  materials,  com- 
pounds differing  from  each  other  thus  widely, 
and  man  vainly  endeavors  to  find  the  secret  of  her 


398 


TURPENTINE. 


skill.    By  chemical  operations,  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine is  resolved  into  a  number  of  substances  of  no 
particular  value,  the  most  curious  of  which  is  arti- 
ficial camphor,  so  called  from  its  singular  resem- 
blance in  odor  and  appearance  to  that  of  gum.  It 
is  made  by  the  action  of  hydrochloric  acid  on  the 
spirits  of  turpentine.    One  of  the  most  powerful 
solvents  of  india-rubber,  and  of  many  of  the  gums 
and  resins,  is  spirits  of  turpentine.    It  possesses 
electrical  affinity  and  polarizes  light :  it  absorbs 
ozone  to  such  a  degree  that  if  left  standing  a  length 
of  time  it  acquires  the  power  of  bleaching  vegeta- 
ble colors.    In  the  art  of  painting  no  substitute 
for  it  has  ever  been  obtained,  though  the  scanty 
supply  from  1860  to  1865  stimulated  much  endea- 
vor in  this  direction.    The  various  light  products 
of  petroleum  were  used  for  a  time,  but  were  aban- 
doned as  soon  as  spirits  of  turpentine  could  be 
procured.    Low  grades  of  white  paints  are  made 
whiter  by  its  use,  while  those  in  which  benzine  is 
used  steadily  turn  yellow.    The  mode  of  gathering 
the  products  of  the  pine  tree  and  their  preparation 
for  market,  would  no  doubt  be  an  interesting 
subject  to  many  of  our  readers,  but  space  will  not 
permit  it  just  here.    Turpentine  is  formed  by  the 
distillation  of  the  gum  which  exudes  from  the  tree. 
The  operation  is  conducted  in  large  turnip-shaped 
stills,  made  of  copper  and  set  in  brick-work,  the 
fire  being  applied  directly  to  the  bottom  of  the 
still.    The  stills  will  hold  from  ten  to  fifty  barrels 
of  gum.    This  is  "  charged"  at  the  top  and  the 
cap  fitted  on.    This  cap  connects  by  an  arm  with 
the  worm,  around  which  cool  water  is  constantly 
running.    As  the  process  of  distillation  goes  on, 
the  distiller  adds  from  time  to  time  a  little  water 


TURPENTINE. 


399 


to  prevent  scorching",  and  tries  his  charge  by  insert- 
ing a  rod  in  a  small  hole  in  the  top  of  the  still,  in- 
tended for  the  purpose.  When  the  process  has 
reached  a  certain  point,  he  draws  his  fire  and 
allows  the  still  to  cool  a  little;  then  he  takes  off 
the  cap,  and  from  the  liquid  mass  inside  skims  otf 
all  the  chips  and  bark,  of  which  there  is  always 
more  or  less  in  the  gum.  If  the  cap  is  taken  off 
too  soon  the  whole  charge  will  take  fire  from 
rapid  oxidation.  The  spirit  being  condensed  in 
the  worm,  runs  out,  mingled  with  considerable 
water,  into  a  tub;  the  water,  on  account  of  its 
specific  gravity,  settling  at  the  bottom.  From 
this  tub  the  spirits  are  syphoned  off  into  well- 
glued  barrels  for  shipment.  Though  the  whole 
operation  is  one  of  great  simplicity  apparently, 
yet  to  insure  a  good  article  and  a  high  price,  care 
and  strict  attention  is  required  in  conducting  it. 
From  Wilmington,  N.  C,  southward,  and  nearly 
all  the  way  to  Florida,  the  pitch-pine  trees,  with 
blazed  sides,  attract  the  attention  of  the  traveler. 
There  are  several  kinds  of  pine  trees,  including 
Roumany,  and  pitch-pine.  The  latter  is  the  only 
valuable  one  for  "boxing"  as  it  is  called,  and 
differs  a  little  from  the  yellow  pine,  with  which  it 
is  sometimes  confounded  at  the  North.  The 
owners  of  these  pine  lands  generally  lease  the 
"privilege"  for  the  business,  and  receive  about 
$125  for  a  crop,  which  consists  of  10,000  "  boxes." 
The  boxes  are  cavities  cut  into  the  tree  near  the 
ground  so  as  to  hold  about  a  quart, 
and  from  one  to  four  boxes  are  cut  in  a  tree,  the 
number  depending  upon  its  size.  One  man  can 
attend  to  and  gather  the  crop  of  10,000  boxes 
during  the  season,  which  lasts  from  March  to 


TURPENTINE. 


September.  About  three  quarts  of  pitch  or  gum 
is  the  average  production  of  each  box;  but  to 
secure  this  amount,  the  bark  of  the  tree  above  the 
box  must  be  hacked  away  a  little  every  fortnight. 
Doing-  this  so  often  and  for  successive  seasons, 
removes  the  bark  as  high  as  can  easily  be  reached, 
While  the  quality  of  the  gum  constantly  decreases, 
in  that  it  yields  less  spirit,  as  the  turpentine  is 
called,  and  then  the  trees  are  abandoned.  The 
gum  is  scraped  out  of  the  boxes  with  a  sort  of 
wooden  spoon,  and  at  the  close  of  the  season,  after 
the  pitch  on  the  exposed  surface  of  the  tree  has 
become  hard,  it  is  removed  by  scraping,  and  is 
only  good  for  resin,  producing  no  turpentine. 
The  gum  sells  for  $1.50  a  barrel  to  the  distillers. 
From  16  barrels  of  the  crude  gum,  which  is  the 
average  capacity  of  the  stills,  80  gallons  of  tur- 
pentine and  10  barrels  of  resin  are  made.  The 
resin  sells  for  from  $1.40  to  $5  per  barrel,  accord- 
ing to  quality,  and  just  about  pays  for  cost  of  gum 
and  distilling,  leaving  the  spirit,  which  sells  for 
40  cents  a  gallon,  as  the  profit  of  the  business. 
Immense  quantities  of  resin  await  shipment  at  the 
stations  along  the  line,  and  the  pleasant  odor  en- 
ters the  car  windows  as  you  are  whirled  along. 
After  the  trees  are  unfit  for  further  boxing,  and 
are  not  suitable  for  lumber,  they  are  sometimes 
used  to  manufacture  tar ;  but  the  business  is  not 
very  profitable,  and  is  only  done  by  large  com- 
panies, who  can  use  their  surplus  labor.  The  trees 
are  cut  up  into  wood  which  is  piled  in  a  hole  in  the 
ground  and  covered  with  earth,  and  then  burned 
the  same  as  charcoal  is  burned  elsewhere.  The 
heat  sweats  out  the  gum,  which  uniting  with  the 
smoke  runs  off  through  a  pipe  provided  for  the 


TURPENTINE  VARNISH. 


401 


purpose.  A  cord  of  wood  will  make  two  barrels 
of  tar,  which  sells  for  $1.50  per  barrel,  and  costs 
37-J  cents  to  make.  The  charcoal  is  then  sold  for 
cooking-  purposes. 

The  name  turpentine  is  here  given  without  the 
appellation  oil  or  spirits,  some  calling  it  properly 
"  oil  of  turpentine,"  others,  "spirits  of  turpen- 
tine." The  name  of  turpentine  is  applied  to  a 
liquid,  or  soft  solid  product  of  certain  coniferous 
plants,  and  there  are  several  varieties  as  follows  : 

American  or  white  turpentine. 

Bordeaux  turpentine. 

Venice  turpentine. 

Strasburg  turpentine. 

Canadian  turpentine,  or  Canada  balsam. 

Chio  turpentine. 

Frankincense. 

Turpentine  Varnish.— A  resin  varnish  used  prin- 
cipally on  musical  instruments,  toys,  etc.  It  is 
made  as  follows  :  resin,  one  pound  ;  boiled  linseed 
oil,  one  pound.  Melt,  then  add  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine, two  pounds — mix  well. 

Tuscan  Red- — An  iron  oxide,  obtained  by  burning- 
suitable  ochres — it  is  a  very  durable  color. 


402 


U 

Ultramarine. — From  ultra,  beyond,  and  marinus, 
the  sea,  because  it  was  formerly  brought  from  be- 
yond the  sea.  A  blue  pigment,  highly  valued  for 
the  purit}7, delicacy  and  permanency  of  its  color,  for- 
merly obtained  from  the  precious  stone  lapis  lazuli 
by  a  tedious  process.  The  chemical  properties  of 
the  pigment  are,  silica,  35.8;  alumina,  34.8;  soda, 
23.2  ;  sulphur,  3.1 ;  carbonate  of  lime,  3.1  =  100.0, 
and  it  is  now  prepared  from  such  formula  instead 
of  making  it  from  the  precious  stone  of  the  Great 
Bucharia.  Pure  ultramarine  varies  in  shade  from 
light  to  dark,  and  in  hue,  from  pale  warm  azure  to 
the  deepest  cold  blue,  the  former  of  which,  when 
impure  in  color,  is  called  ultramarine  ashes.  It 
requires  a  good  ground-work  when  used  pure,  and 
this  should  be  as  near  the  desired  shade  of  finish 
as  can  be  well  obtained  with  other  blues.  Being  a 
very  transparent  pigment,  the  ground  must  be 
solid,  for  any  streaks  or  clouds  in  the  ground 
would  be  seen  through  several  coatings,  and  great 
care  must  be  taken  to  have  the  surface  smooth, 
otherwise,  in  rubbing  the  varnish  coats,  imperfec- 
tions in  color  will  be  made. 

Umber. — An  earth.    (See  Burnt  Umber.) 


\ 


403 


V 

Vandyke  Brown. — A  pigment  obtained  from  a 
kind  of  peat  or  bog  earth  of  a  fine,  deep,  semi- 
transparent  brown  color.  It  owes  its  name  and 
reputation  from  the  supposition  of  its  being-  the 
brown  used  by  the  celebrated  painter  Vandyke,  in 
his  pictures.  It  is  a  useful  color  on  the  palette  or 
in  the  paint-shop  for  gears  or  panels,  and  finds 
favor  with  many  painters  as  a  saddening  for  colors 
which  appear  too  glaring.  This  color  is  also  pre- 
pared by  the  calcination  of  certain  yellow  ochres 
found  in  the  south  of  France,  but  as  this  generally 
holds  a  large  share  of  brown  grit  (glass  sand) 
which  is  added  to  increase  its  weight,  the  former  is 
of  more  value. 

Vegetable  Black. — A  pigment  extensively  used  in 
Europe  in  place  of  lampblack. 

Vehicle. — The  liquid  with  which  the  various  pig- 
ments are  applied — the  medium. 

Venetian  Red. — An  iron  oxide,  made  by  burning 
certain  ochres.  The  brightness  of  the  color  de- 
pends upon  the  materials  used  and  the  skill  of  the 
workman  in  burning. 

Verdigris. — A  diacetate  of  copper,  made  by  corrod- 
ing copper  with  acids.  It  is  a  very  transparent 
color  and  is  seldom  used  in  any  other  way  than  as 
glazing.  It  makes  beautiful  green  shades  over 
gold  leaf  in  scrolling  and  ornamenting. 


404 


VENTILATION. 


Varnish. — Carriage  varnish  is  considered  the  high- 
est grade  of  all  varnishes,  being  one  of  the  most 
sensitive  of  substances  ;  it  requires  great  experi- 
ence in  its  manufacture.  It  must  be  delicate  yet 
durable,  dainty  yet  tough  ;  brilliant  but  colorless  ; 
flow  freely  but  uniformly  ;  set  slowly  but  harden 
quickly.  English  varnishes  were  for  many  years 
the  standard,  and  these  were  used  on  almost  all 
the  work  built  in  this  country.  These  varnishes 
were  first  imported  about  42  years  ago,  i.  e.,  in 
1840,  by  J.  R.  Lawrence,  a  New  York  city  carriage 
maker,  since  which  time  American  ingenuity  has 
been  at  work  to  make  varnishes  which  would 
equal  the  English.  We  are  enabled  to  say  now, 
that  some  of  the  American  varnishes  have  not 
only  equaled  but  surpassed  them.  It  would 
occupy  too  much  space  to  enter  into  the 
details  of  varnish  making  for  there  are  so  many 
varieties  of  the  manufactured  article,  so  many 
opinions  regarding  varnish,  and  so  great  a 
number  of  formulas  for  its  mixture.  In  years 
gone  by  when  it  was  absolutely  necessary  for  one 
to  make  his  own  varnish,  it  possibly  would  have 
been  an  interesting  subject  for  the  readers  of  such 
a  book  as  this,  but  as  any  kind  or  quality  for  any 
conceivable  purpose  can  be  obtained  at  leading 
paint  stores,  there  seems  to  be  no  pressing  need 
for  a  long  array  of  formulas  for  making  varnish, 
and  thus  we  leave  it. 

Ventilation.— The  means  of  supplying  fresh  air  to  a 
paint  shop.  This  is  of  vital  importance  in  the 
varnish  room,  and  all  first-class  shops  are  supplied 
with  some  contrivance  by  which  air  may  or  may 
not  be  admitted.  The  windows  should  be  made  air 
tight  by  the  use  of  weather  strips,  and  it  is  a  good 


VERDITER. 


405 


plan  to  provide  double  sashes,  i.  e.,  have  a  pair  of 
sashes  to  open  and  shut  from  the  inside,  like  shut- 
ters. A  pipe  at  least  a  foot  in  diameter  should  ex- 
tend upward  through  the  roof,  having-  upon  its 
outer  end  a  revolving-  jack:  theinner  end  may  be 
fitted  with  a  damper,  which  may  be  opened  or 
closed  at  will.  This  arrangement  will  be  found 
very  satisfactory,  inasmuch  as  it  carries  off  by 
suction  or  draught  the  foul  air.  Varnish  dries  or 
hardens  by  absorbing-  oxyg-en  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  when  the  room  is  closed  nearly  air-tigiit,  the 
amount  of  oxyg-en  in  the  room  will  soon  be  lessen- 
ed by  the  absorption  of  the  varnish,  and  conse- 
quently the  drying-  process  will  then  g-o  on  more 
slowly,  but  when  fresh  air  is  admitted,  by  the  exit 
of  the  deoxyg-enized  air  throug-h  the  ventilator,  the 
varnish  will  have  something-  to  feed  upon  and  will 
dry  and  harden  better. 
Verditer. — A  blue  pigment  formed  from  a  sulphate 
or  nitrate  of  copper  by  lime,  the  precipitate  being 
ground  up  with  an  excess  of  lime ;  green  verditer 
is  formed  by  sea-salt  and  sulphate  of  copper. 

Verditure. — The  palest  shade  of  green. 

Verona  Green. — An  ochre  of  bluish-green  belonging 
to  a  family  of  which  green  bice,  verdetto,  holly 
green,  and  terre-verte  are  members.  These 
greens  are  found  in  the  Mendip  Hills,  France,  Italy 
and  the  Island  of  Cyprus,  and  have  been  employ- 
ed as  pigment  from  the  earliest  times.  They  are 
almost  unknown  in  the  carriage  paint-shop. 

Violet. — The  color  of  the  violet-purple.  One  of  the 
secondary  colors,  red  and  blue  combined. 

Viridian,  or  Guignet's  Green. — A  beautiful  green 
much  used  by  artists.    It  is  a  light  bluish-green, 


406 


VEINING  HORN. 


which  cannot  be  imitated  by  mixtures  of  blue  and 
yellow. 

Veining  Horn. — A  piece  of  horn  formed  to  take  the 
place  of  the  thumb-nail  in  graining-  to  imitate 
various  woods.  Wrap  a  piece  of  soft  rag*  over  the 
horn,  hold  it  in  the  right  hand  pressed  by  the 
thumb  against  the  inside  upper  portion  of  the 
first  and  second  fingers,  with  the  thumb  slightly 
overlapping  the  first  finger,  and  near  the  small 
end  of  the  horn  and  with  the  rag-protected  horn 
wipe  out  all  the  lights  to  form  the  heart-wood  and 
knots  in  the  grain.  When  the 
grainer  is  possessed  of  a  good,  long, 
and  nicely  rounded  thumb-nail  of 
the  right  hand,  he  need  not  care  for 
•  the  veining  horn — but  accident  may 
deprive  him  of  this  natural  imple- 
ment. 

Vienna  Green-— Same  as  Brunswick  Fig.  156.— Vein- 
or  Schweinfurt  green  {which  see).        ING  HoRN- 

Vermilion.— A  brilliant  red  pigment  found  in  a  nat- 
ural state,  and  manufactured  artificially,  called 
cinnaber  when  crystallized,  and  vermilion  when 
powdered.  The  red  sulphite  of  mercury  is  found 
in  all  mercury  mines.  1  part  of  sulphur  and  2  parts 
of  mercury  are  intimately  mixed  and  sublimated 
(brought  to  a  vapor  and  again  condensed  to  a  solid 
b}7  heat) in  clay  pots;  the  pots  are  then  broken  and 
their  contents  ground  in  a  mill.  Another  method 
of  manufacture  is  as  follows  :  Take  BOO  grammes 
of  mercury,  14  of  sulphur,  75  of  hydrated  potassa, 
and  450  grammes  of  water.  Mix  and  grind  the 
mercuiw^  and  sulphur,  then  pour  on  the  ethiops  thus 
formed,  the  solution  of  potassa  and  stir  it;  put  the 


VERMILION. 


407 


mixture  in  earthen  pots  and  heat  on  a  sand-bath 
at  a  temperature  of  100  degrees  Fah.  After  seven 
or  eight  hours  the  water  will  be  evaporated  and  the 
product  will  pass  from  a  brown  to  a  bright  red 
color. 

To  use  vermilion  observe  the  following-  rules  : 
For  carriage  parts  or  panels,  prepare  the  work  by 
coating  with  white  tinted  with  red  to  form  a  deli- 
cate pink  color.  Mix  the  vermilion  in  an  earthen 
vessel,  using  a  stick  or  wooden  palette-knife  to 
stir  it,  with  equal  parts  of  Japan  gold-size  and 
hard  drying  body-varnish.  Mix  to  a  stiff  paste, 
and  add  sufficient  turpentine  to  thin  it  for  spread- 
ing evenly  with  a  soft  brush.  The  vessel  should 
then  be  set  away  in  a  clean  place,  to  allow  the 
mixture  to  assimilate,  for  vermilion,  owing  to  its 
sensitiveness,  should  never  be  ground  in  the  mill 
or  come  in  contact  with  metal  surfaces.  When  it 
has  set  a  few  hours,  it  should  be  stirred  well,  and 
its  application  may  then  be  begun.  It  must  be 
laid  on  evenly  and  rubbed  no  more  than  necessary. 
Frequent  stirring  is  necessary , that  the  heav}^  glob- 
ules of  color  may  not  fall  to  the  bottom,  leaving 
near  the  surface  those  which  are  lighter  and  which 
have  an  orange  tint.  Two  thin  coats  are  generally 
necessary,  but  the  surface  should  not  be  rubbed. 
When  the  second  coat  is  dry,  put  a  little  of  the 
color  into  a  cup  of  hard  drying  body-varnish,  for 
the  color-and- varnish  coat,  and  apply  it  with  a  bad- 
ger or  fitch  varnish  brush.  This  makes  a  pure 
vermilion  job.  If  a  carmine  job  is  desired,  it  is 
best  to  add  a  little  carmine  to  the  second  coat  of 
vermilion  color.  Carmine  tends  to  prevent  the 
darkening  of  vermilion  by  partially  excluding  sun- 
light, but  of  course  the  painter  does  not  always 


VERMILION. 


desire*  to  use  carmine  with  it.  The  brilliancy  of 
vermilion  is  heightened  and  rendered  more  prom- 
inent by  association  with  other  colors.  Red  has 
its  complementary  in  a  mixture  of  blue  and  yellow 
which  forms  green.  A  neutral  color,  white  and 
black,  harmonizes  with  it,  but  the  color  is  not  so 
intensified  as  it  is  by  green.  A  stripe  of  green 
over  red  will  not  only  be  pleasing  to  the  eye,  but 
will  make  the  latter  less  likely  to  look  faded  or 
dark  because  its  complementary  color  being  pres- 
ent and  intensifying  it,  the  eye  would  not  so 
quickly  discern  any  change  that  might  take  place. 

There  are  two  brands  of  English  vermilion  used, 
i.  e.y  the  English  vermilion,  light  or  pale,  and  deep 
or  dark.  The  former  is  used  for  lettering,  strip- 
ing, etc.,  as  it  possesses  more  body;  the  latter  is 
best  for  panel  or  gear  color. 

Of  late  years  a  new  brand  called  German  ver- 
milion has  found  favor  with  carriage  painters,  and 
and  as  it  appears  durable,  and  may  be  obtained  at 
a  low  price,  it  is  superseding  the  English  vermilion 
to  a  great  extent. 


409 


W  - 

Wagon  Jack. — A  simple  contrivance  for  raising 
and  holding-  up  an  axle  so  that  the  wheel  may  he 
turned  to  paint  or  varnish  it.  To  make  a  cheap 
and  an  excellent  wagon  jack  :  take  the  end  of  a 
broken  shaft — always  to  he  found  in  a  carriage 
shop — and  fit  to  it  the  hack  rest,  a  strip  of  hard 
wood  about  two  feet  long;  bore  a  hole  through  both 
and  insert  a  bolt  for  a  pivot,  then  a  small  hole  in 
front  to  hold  an  iron  pin,  on  which  the  axle  rests, 
completes  the  work.  A  wheel  may  be  raised  or 
lowered  without  touching  the  gear  with  the  hands, 
and  no  adjustment  of  the  jack  is  necessary,  it  is 
always  ready. 

Water  Colors. — Colors  ground  and  mixed  with 
water  and  gum,  or  size  instead  of  oil.  For  draw- 
ings on  paper,  or  for  waiter-colored  pictures,  they 
are  prepared  with  great  care.  The  coarser  grade 
of  work  is  done  with  colors  mixed  with  glue-size 
— virtually,  distemper  or  kalsomine. 

Water-Tool. — A  small  brush  used  in  washing  a 
body  or  gear.  The  ordinary  house-painter's  sash- 
tool  is  generally  used  for  this  purpose. 

Wall  Brush. — A  wide,  flat,  bristle  brush  designed 
for  painting  walls,  ceilings,  and  other  large  sur- 
faces.   (See  next  page.) 

Wedgwood  Tints. — The  delicate  colors  adopted 
by  Josiah  Wedgwood,  for  cameo  grounds,  etc. 


410 


WEARING-BODY  VARNISH. 


Wash  Leather. — The  name  often  given  to  a  cham- 
ois skin  or  "  shammy  "  {which  see). 

Wearing-Body  Varnish-— This  varnish  is  made  of 
the  best  materials  the  inventive  genius  of  man  can 
compound.  It  is  designed  for  the  final  or  finishing- 
coat  over  carriage  bodies,  is  pale  in  color,  and 
exceedingly  limpid,  so  that  it  works  well  under  the 
brush  and  possesses  that  quality  so  much  admired 
by  the  varnisher,  and  known  as  "  thickening  under 
the  brush,"  in  order  that  a  heavy  coat  may  be 
laid  upon  a  panel  without  fear  of  its  running  down 
in  festoons  or  clouds  or  heavy  masses.    It  is  the 


Fig.  157.— Wall  Brush. 


king  of  all  varnishes  made,  i.  e.,  the  best,  most 
durable,  brilliant,  and  therefore  valued  at  the 
highest  price,  of  varnishes.  This  varnish  is  less 
liable  to  turn  blue  by  reason  of  dampness  than 
most  finishing  varnishes. 

White.— Having  the  color  of  snow.  It  is  not  strictly 
a  color,  and  yet  white  light  is  said  to  be  a  compo- 
sition of  all  colors. 

White  Chalk.— Carbonate  of  lime,  used  for  drawing 
on  dark  surfaces. 


WHITE  LEAD. 


411 


Whiting. — The  same  as  chalk,  a  carbonate  of  lime, 
but  of  inferior  quality.  It  is  extensively  used  in 
making"  putty  {which  see). 

White  Lead. — (Known  also  as  Cremnitz,  Dutch 
Hamburg-,  Flemish,  Venetian,  and  Roman  white.) 
The  system  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  white 
lead,  in  this  country,  is  called  the  old  Dutch 
system,  and  is  recognized  as  the  best.  The  pig- 
lead  is  melted  and  run  into  moulds,  forming  what 
are  called  "buckles,"  weighing-  about  a  pound 
each,  and  shaped  like  a  stove  grate.  These  are 
placed  in  earthen  pots,  but  kept  from  contact  with 
the  acetic  acid  (vinegar)  with  which  the  latter  are 
charged,  by  means  of  projections  made  purposely 
on  the  pots,  and  upon  which  the  buckles  rest. 
The  pots  are  then  stacked  up  in  what  are  known 
as  beds — large  frame  structures,  roofed  in  and 
provided  with  double  walls — to  the  number  of  ten 
thousand  or  more.  They  are  placed  upon  layers, 
with  boards  and  tan  between  each,  and  piled  up 
to  the  height  of  the  building,  the  bottom  of  which 
and  spaces  between  the  walls  all  being-  padded 
with  tan-bark,  till  the  whole  is  tightly  shut  in,  and 
the  contents  of  the  pots  are  left  to  the  silent 
action  of  chemical  laws.  The  tan  generates  heat, 
makes  an  oxide  of  the  lead,  and  vaporizes  the  acid, 
and  with  the  carbonic  acid  formed  in  decomposi- 
tion of  the  tan,  gradually  reduces  the  metal  to  a 
beautiful  snow-white  substance.  The  result  is 
only  attained  after  an  interval  of  ten  to  fourteen 
weeks,  when  the  beds  are  opened  and  the  buckles 
found  transformed  into  carbonate  of  lead. 

From  the  beds  it  is  taken  to  long,  revolving- 
screens,  through  the  meshes  of  which  it  falls  into 
bins  prepared  for  its  reception,  and  any  uncorrod- 


412 


WHITE  LEAD. 


ed  particles  of  metal  are  separated  and  returned 
to  the  melting-  cauldrons.  The  pots,  upon  being- 
taken  out,  contain  no  acid  and  the  lead  has 
increased  considerably  in  bulk  and  weight.  The 
lead,  after  having  passed  through  the  separating 
screens,  is  first  thoroughly  washed,  to  deprive  it 
of  any  free  acid,  stain  or  impurities,  and  is  then 
ground  in  water,  between  heavy  burr-stone  mills, 
into  a  pulpy  mass ;  this  is  then  gathered  and 
pumped  upon  drying-pans  in  the  kiln-house. 
Deprived  by  this  means  of  its  water,  the  product 
becomes  dry  white  lead  of  commerce.  This  dry 
or  carbonate  of  lead  is  then  kneaded  with  a  suitable 
quantity  of  linseed  oil,  generally  in  the  proportion 
of  eig-ht  pounds  of  oil  to  one  hundred  of  lead.  The 
mixture  is  then  ground  fine  in  mills  and  packed  for 
shipment  and  use. 

White  lead  forms  the  base  or  foundation  of  all  or 
nearly  all  light  colors  used  by  the  carriage  paint- 
er. To  mix  it  for  first  coats  or  priming,  raw 
linseed  oil  only  should  be  employed,  and  the  white 
lead  should  be  sparingly  used — just  sufficient  to 
color  the  oil — for  it  is  the  oil  which  gives  durabili- 
ty and  not  the  lead. 

To  mix  color  but  little  oil  is  used,  if  any,  and  in 
most  cases  the  oil  that  is  already  ground  in  the 
lead  is  an  excess,  and  must  be  partially  extracted. 
Thin  the  white  lead  with  turpentine  to  a  milk-like 
fluid,  stir  all  well  together,  then  set  it  aside  for  a 
day  or  two,  at  the  end  of  which  time  a  large  share 
of  the  oil,  together  with  some  of  the  turpentine, 
will  be  found  quite  free  from  the  lead,  on  the 
surface ;  this  should  be  poured  off,  and  if  it  be 
desired  to  remove  more  of  the  oil,  another  addition 
of   turpentine,  and   settling,  should  be  given. 


WHITE  LEAD. 


413 


However,  one  "  washing "  will  generally  take 
away  a  sufficient  quantity  of  oil  to  make  the  keg- 
lead  ready  for  mixture  as  color.  Now,  add  to  the 
washed  lead  a  little  rubbing  varnish  (of  light  shade) 
say:  one  gill  to  a  quart  of  the  softened  lead,  and 
this  will  give  ' 'binding  "  and  "drying  "  qualities 
to  the  paint.  Stir  well,  and  if  too  thick  to  spread 
nicely,  add  a  little  turpentine.  Two  coats  of  this 
color  over  a  light  ground,  should  make  a  solid 
foundation.  A  white  surface  will  remain  white 
much  longer  if  no  clear  varnish  be  laid  over  it. 
Apply  to  the  ground  made  by  two  coats  of  color 
as  above  described,  a  flowing  coat  of  white  color- 
and- varnish,  made  by  mixing  some  of  the 
"washed"  lead  with  light  colored  finishing- 
varnish.  When  dry,  rub  down  as  usual,  with 
pulverized  pumice  stone,  and  give  a  second  coat  of 
same,  or  if  an  extra  job  is  desired  zinc  white  may 
be  substituted  for  the  lead.  Next  gently  rub  the 
glass  off  with  pumice  powder,  leaving  a  smooth 
and  even  egg-shell  gloss  only,  to  the  work.  If 
striping,  ornamenting  or  lettering  is  to  be  done, 
this  may  now  be  added,  and  then  pencil- varnished, 
that  is,  the  stripes,  ornaments,  or  letters  should  be 
varnished  with  clear  finishing  varnish. 

Taking  the  "  washed"  white  lead  for  a  base  the 
following  tints  may  be  made  : 
Normal  gray,  8  parts  white  to  2  of  black. 
Lead  color,  8  parts  white,  1  blue,  and  1  black. 
Oak  color,  8  parts  white,  and  1  yellow  ochre. 
Fawn  color,  8  parts  white,  1  red,  2  yellow  and  1 

umber. 

Flesh  color,  8  parts  white,  3  red,  and"  3  yellow. 
Peach  blossom,  8  .parts  white,  1  red,  1  blue  and  1 
yellow. 


414 


WHITEWASH. 


Willow-green,  5  parts  white  and  2  verdigris. 
Pea-green,  5  parts  white  and  1  chrome  green. 
Stone  color,  5  parts  white,  2  yellow  and  1  umber. 
Lemon  color,  5  parts  white  and  2  medium  chrome 
yellow. 

Rose  color,  5  parts  white  and  2  carmine. 
Light  buff,  5  parts  white  and  1  yellow  ochre. 
Drab  color,  9  parts  white  and  1  umber. 
French  gray,  white  tinted  with  ivory  black  and 
red. 

Pearl  color,  white  tinted  with  black,  blue  and  red. 

Carnation,  1  part  white,  and  3  lake. 

Plum  color,  2  parts  white,  2  blue,  and  1  red. 

Whitewash. — The  white  coating  given  to  the  light- 
houses of  the  United  States  is  made  as  follows, 
having  been  found  to  answer  the  purpose  nearly  as 
wTell  on  wood,  brick  or  stone  as  oil  paint  and  is 
m  uch  cheaper  :  Slack  half  a  bushel  of  lump  lime 
with  boiling  water,  k  eping  it  covered  during  the 
process.  Strain  it  and  add  a  peck  of  salt,  dissolved 
in  hot  water ;  three  pounds  of  ground  rice  put  in 
boiling  water,  and  boiled  to  a  thin  paste;  half  a 
pound  of  powdered  Spanish  whiting,  and  a  pound 
of  clear  glue  dissolved  in  warm  water.  Mix  all  to- 
gether and  let  stand  for  several  days.  Keep  the 
whitewash  in  a  kettle  or  portable  furnace,  and 
when  used  put  it  on  as  hot  as  possible  with  white- 
wash brushes. 

Another  method  of  preparing  whitewash  con- 
sists in  adding  to  the  slacked  lime  2  pounds  of  sul- 
phate of  zinc  and  1  pound  of  common  salt ;  this 
hardens  the  wash  so  that  it  will  not  easily  rub  off. 

An  improved  whitewash  is  made  with  sulphate 
of  baryta  in  place  of  lime  as  follows:  Take  i  lb. 
of  powdered  or  softened  glue  and  dissolve  it  by 


WHEEL-REST. 


415 


heat  in  a  quart  of  water.  Six  pounds  of  baryta  is 
then  made  into  a  milky  solution  with  hot  water  and 
the  glue  size  is  added.  A  good  stirring*  while  hot 
and  its  application  with  a  good  brush  will  pro- 
duce good  results. 

Wheel-rest. — A  contrivance  for  holding  a  wheel 
while  it  is  being  painted,  striped,  etc.  It  is  the 
habit  in  some  shops  to  bore  a  hole  in  a  post  or 


Fig.  158.— Wheel-rest. 

other  part  of  the  building,  and  then  insert  an  iron 
rod  on  which  to  suspend  the  wheel. 

Willow- Green- — A  color  made  by  mixing  white 
with  emerald-green,  or  verdigris. 

Withering;. — Same  as  "  deciding"  {which  see). 

Wrinkling. — A  term  used  by  painters  to  indicate  a 
wrinkled  or  "  drawn  up"  appearance  in  varnish 
coats.  Wrinkling  is  caused  by  a  too  heavy 
flow  of  varnish  ;  the  outside  surface  absorbs  oxy- 


WRINKLING. 


gen,  and,  drying*,  forms  a  skin  over  the  larger 
mass  of  varnish ;  this,  in  turn,  gives  up  a  portion 
of  its  volatile  oils,  which  lessen  its  hulk,  and  the 
outside  skin  thereby  becoming-  larg-er  than  neces- 
sary to  cover  the  under  mass,  draws  up  in  ridges 
or  wrinkles,  somewhat  resembling  the  wrinkling 
of  the  skin  in  old  age. 


417 


Y 

Yel  low. — A  color  of  golden  hue,  and  of  many  varieties. 
It  is  one  of  the  three  primaries  and  with  blue 
forms  green. 

Yellow  Colors. — The  yellow  pigments  employed  by 
painters  are :  1.  The  varieties  of  chrome  prepared 
from  chromate  of  lead.  2.  Several  colors  technical- 
ly called  pinks — Brown  pink,  prepared  as  a  lake 
from  a  decoction  of  French  berries  or  fustic ;  and 
English  pink  and  Dutch  pink,  both  lakes,  pre- 
pared by  different  processes,  from  French  yellow 
berries  and  tumeric.  3.  Naples  yellow,  a  mixture 
of  metallic  antimony,  red  lead,  and  oxide  of  zinc 
calcined,  added  to  a  small  quantity  of  lime,  then 
fused,  and  afterwards  ground  to  powder.  4.  Pat- 
ent yellow  consists  of  23  parts  of  chloride  of  lead 
and  27  parts  of  carbonate  of  lead  well  mixed  in 
powder,  then  fused  together.  5.  King's  yellow  is 
a  tersulphuret  of  arsenic.  6.  Weed  yellow  is  pre- 
pared from  a  decoction  of  weed,  or  dyer's  weed 
with  alum,  and  is  in  fact  another  lake.  7.  Gam- 
boge, the  chief  yellow  coloring  in  water-painting. 

Yellow  Earth. — A  coarse  yellow  ochre,  often  sold 
under  the  name  of  Prussian  red,  English  red,  etc. 

Yellow  Lake. — A  pigment  made  by  saturating  whit- 
ing with  vegetable  yellow  tinctures  in  the  same 
manner  as  rose  pink.  It  may  be  imitated  by  mix- 
ing equal  parts  of  raw  umber  and  white,  and  adding 


418  YELLOW  ORPIMENT. 

a  small  quantity  of  Naples  yellow,  and  a  drop  of 
scarlet  lake. 

Yellow  Ochre-— Same  as  yellow  earth. 

Yellow  Orpiment.— The  sulphuretted  oxide  of  zinc, 
of  a  beautiful  bright  and  pure  yellow  color,  used  as 
a  pigment  (See  Orpiment). 


419 


Z 

Zinc  White. — (Sometimes  called  Chinese  white), 
oxide  of  the  metal  zinc,  a  beautiful  snow- white  sub- 
stance used  in  painting-.  It  is  made  as  follows  : 
The  carbonate  and  silicate  of  zinc  being-  crushed 
and  mixed  with  33  per  cent,  of  coal,  is  put  into  a 
large  fire-brick  furnace,  just  as  it  comes  from  the 
mines.  Air  is  blown  into  the  furnace,  and  the  oxy- 
gen in  it  oxidizes  the  metallic  zinc  vapor,  for  which 
it  has  a  great  affinity,  as  soon  as  it  is  liberated. 
The  oxide  of  zinc  is  thus  formed,  and  is  propelled 
by  air  forced  into  the  furnaces  into  a  high  tower  in 
white  flocculent  particles,with  which  are  associated 
coal  ashes  and  particles  of  other  foreign  substances. 
It  is  driven  by  powerful  blowers  through  a  series  of 
chambers  connected  by  pipes  ;  the  majority  of  the 
oxide  associated  with  impurities  deposits  in  the 
tower,  and  the  less  impure  in  the  chambers  and 
cooling  house,  the  most  flocculent  and  purest  pass- 
ing through  pipes  to  which  muslin  bags  are 
attached  and  in  which  it  is  collected.  The  best  is 
like  white  wheat  flour,  though  very  much  heavier. 
Zinc  white  is  used  principally  in  making-  China 
gloss  (q.  v.)  for  the  interior  of  houses,  and  by 
artists. 

Zinc,  the  Painting  of. — This  metal  is  frequently 
used  for  the  sides  of  business  wagons,  and  unless 
it  is  properly  prepared  for  painting,  the  least  jar 
will  cause  the  paint  to  flake  from  its  greasy,,  anti- 


420 


ZAFFRE. 


adhesive  surface.  To  prevent  this,  first  rub  the 
zinc  over  with  dilute  muriatic  acid,  which  will 
remove  the  "  greasiness  "  and  roughen  it.  Then 
apply  a  coat  of  permanent  wood  filling  as  directed 
(q.  v).  This  permanent  wood  filling  is  a  very  tena- 
cious substance  and  will  cling  firmly  to  the  metal, 
and  the  paint  will  cling  to  this  filling,  and  a  good 
job  will  result. 

Zaffre. — A  blue  pigment  prepared  from  metal  cobalt 
(See  Cobalt  Blue). 

Zubia  Vermilion.— A  local  name  of  a  substitute  for 
vermilion  made  by  a  New  York  house,  but  of 
transient  durability. 

Zinc  Green. — (Sold  also  as  cobalt  green,  and  Rin- 
man's  green)  made  by  macerating  Prussian  blue 
in  a  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc. 


421 


RECIPES. 


Black  Stencil  Ink. 

Mix  together  1  part  of  lampblack,  1  part  Prussian 
blue,  with  glycerine,  then  add  an  equal  quantity  of 
gum  arabic  (dissolved)  and  glycerine  to  form  a  thick 
paste. 

To  Transfer  Engravings  to  Glass. 

First  coat  the  glass  with  a  thm  coat  of  carriage  rub- 
bing varnish  and  let  it  dry  hard.  Apply  the  second  coat 
and  while  it  is  drying  prepare  the  engraving  by  wetting 
the  paper  thoroughly,  then  lay  it  between  newspapers  to 
take  off  all  water  from  the  face  side.  The  varnish 
should  be  "  tacky"  after  a  few  hours,  that  is,  if  the 
finger  is  pressed  upon  it  it  appears  sticky,  but  if 
simply  passed  over  the  surface  it  seems  quite  dry,  or 
does  not  stick.  Take  the  engraving  from  the  news- 
papers, and  lay  it  face  downwards  upon  the  varnish. 
Rub  it  down  lightly  to  secure  perfect  adhesion,  then 
let  it  dry  hard.  Now,  moisten  the  paper  and  rub  it  off 
with  the  finger,  leaving  nothing  but  the  printers'  ink  on 
the  varnish.  Give  a  thin  coat  of  varnish,  and  if 
desired  it  may  be  colored  on  the  back  with  oil  paint  to 
make  a  durable  and  elegant  picture. 

Cement  for  Fixing  Glass  Letters. 

Marine  glue  mixed  thick  in  wood  naptha  will  secure- 
ly fasten  glass  letters  to  glass  window  panes.  The 
windows  must  be  perfectly  cleaned  with  ammonia  and 


422 


RECIPES. 


whiting-,  before  any  attempt  is  made  to  put  any  cement 
upon  it. 

Cement  for  Broken  Marble. 

To  one  and  a  half  pounds  of  plaster  of  Paris,  add 
one  pound  of  gum  arabic  made  into  a  thick  mucilage 
with  water,  and  sifted  quicklime  six  ounces.  Mix 
thoroughly,  heat  the  marble,  and  apply  the  mixture. 

Chamois  Skins — to  Clean. 

Chamois  skins  are  best  cleaned  by  the  use  of  plenty 
of  soap,  weak  soda  and  clean  water.  Allow  the  skin  to 
lay  for  a  while,  well  rubbed  over  with  soft  soap,  then 
rub  it  until  it  is  clean.  Rinse  in  warm  water  to 
which  a  little  soda  has  been  added,  and  use  yellow 
soap.  A  small  quantity  of  soap  left  in  the  skin  will 
improve  its  softness,  while  pure  water  rinsing  will 
harden  it.  After  rinsing  wring  it  well  in  a  rough  towel 
and  dry  quickly,  then  rub  it  and  work  it  well  in  the 
hands  and  it  will  become  almost  like  new. 

Furniture  Paste. 

1.  Spirits  of  turpentine,  beeswax  and  linseed  oil, 
equal  parts.  Melt  all  together  and  cool  for  use.  2 
Turpentine,  10  ounces ;  beeswax,  4  ounces  ;  alkanet 
root,  melt  all  together  and  strain  for  use.  3.  White 
wax,  one  pound ;  liquor  of  potassa,  one-half  gal- 
lon; boil  until  of  the  proper  consistency.  4.  Yel- 
low beeswax,  20  parts,  resin,  one  part;  alkanet 
root,  one  part ;  turpentine,  six  parts;  linseed  oil,  six 
parts  ;  dissolve  by  heat,  strain  and  cool. 

Colored  Varnish. 

A  colored  varnish,  for  metal  work,  cork,  etc.,  by 
dissolving  sealing-wax  of  the  color  required  in  spirits 


RECIPES. 


423 


of  wine.  Apply  with  a  camel's-hair  brush,  which 
should  be  cleansed,  when  done  with,  by  soaking"  in 
spirits  of  wine. 

To  Bronze  Plaster  Casts. 

Coat  the  figure  with  isinglass  size  until  the  surface 
continues  in  a  moist  state,  and  will  absorb  no  more  ; 
then  touch  it  over  carefully  and  sparingly  with  gold 
size,  and  put  it  away  in  a  clean  dry  place  for  several 
hours,  until  the  size  feels  sticky  and  almost  dry ;  then 
rub  on  the  bronze  powder,  using  a  soft  cameFs-hair 
brush  for  the  deep  parts  and  a  piece  of  velvet  or  plush 
on  the  higher  parts,  which  will  take  on  a  bright 
metallic  lustre  if  the  size  is  in  a  proper  condition,  i.  e., 
not  too  dry,  nor  too  wet. 

To  Clean  a  Hair-Pencil. 

Rinse  the  paint  out  thoroughly  with  turpentine,  then 
work  the  brush  well  in  fine  ashes  or  other  like  dust, 
shake  the  hair  out  well  and  the  pencil  will  always 
appear  as  good  as  new.  The  directions  given  in  some 
publications  to  wash  pencil  in  soap  and  water  are  en- 
tirely at  variance  with  35  years'  experience.  The  water 
and  alkali  destroy  the  elasticity  of  the  hair,  or  bris- 
tles, and  ruins  the  brushes. 

Gilding  Glass  and  China. 

Grind  gold  leaf  to  a  fine  powder  on  a  glass  or  marble 
slab  while  mixed  with  honey,  then  wash  out  the  honey 
by  adding  water  and  allowing  the  gold  to  fall  to  the 
bottom  of  the  vessel,  dry  well,  and  a  very  superior  gold 
bronze  will  be  the  result ;  mix  the  powder  with  gum 
water  to  a  paint-like  consistency,  add  a  small  quantity 
of  powdered  borax,  and  apply  the  mixture  to  the  glass 
or  china  with  a  camel's-hair  pencil.    Heat  is  then  ap- 


424 


RECIPES. 


plied  by  a  stove  until  the  borax  fuses,  when  the  gold 
will  be  fixed.  It  must  then  be  burnished  with  a  metal 
or  dog's-tooth  burnisher. 

Pearl  Inlaying. 

The  inlaid  work  as  seen  on  sewing*  machines,  etc.,  is 
done  as  follows  :  Select  the  choicest  thin  scales  of  the 
shell — called  shell  pearl — and  after  laying  upon  the 
work  a  heavy  coat  of  black  baking  japan,  place  them 
as  desired  and  press  them  well  into  the  soft  japan;  put 
the  work  in  the  oven  and  bake  as  usual.  Two  or 
three  coats  of  japan  will  be  necessary  to  level  up  the 
work,  then  the  surface  must  be  rubbeddown  with  lump 
pumice  stone,  and  polished.  The  painting  and  gilding 
should  now  be  put  on  and  then  a  flowing  coat  of  var- 
nish over  all. 

To  Improve  the  Color  of  Mahogany. 

Put  into  an  earthen  basin  one  pint  of  linseed  oil,  ten 
cents  worth  of  alkanet  root,  and  ten  cents  worth  of 
rose  pink ;  stir  well  together  and  let  stand  for  several 
hours.  Thoroughly  clean  the  mahogany,  then  wet  the 
wood  well  and  let  dry  ;  then  polish  oft"  with  linen  rags. 
The  white  spots  made  on  mahogany  tables  by  hot 
dishes  or  water  may  be  removed  by  first  rubbing  the 
spot  with  linseed  oil  and  afterwards  pouring  on  spirits 
of  wine  and  rubbing  with  a  soft  cloth.  Another  plan 
is  to  take  six  parts  spirits  of  salts,  one  part  of  salts  of 
lemon  ;  mix  and  keep  in  a  bottle.  When  required  for 
use,  rub  a  little  on  the  spots,  and  rub  well. 

Oil  Finishes. 

Linseed  oil,  twelve  ounces  ;  black  resin,  three  ounces; 
vinegar,  three  ounces  ;  rectified  spirits,  two  ounces ; 
butter  of  antimony,  eight  ounces  ;  spirits,  of  salts,  one 


RECIPES. 


425 


ounce.  Melt  the  resin  and  oil,  remove  from  the  fire 
and  add  the  vinegar,  allow  it  to  boil  a  few  minutes, 
stirring*  it  meanwhile,  then  let  cool  and  bottle  for  use. 

2.  Two  ounces  alkanet  root  added  to  one  pint  of  lin- 
seed oil;  heat,  strain,  and  add  one  ounce  of  lac  varnish. 

3.  Same  as  No.  2,  with  addition  of  one  ounce  of  rose 
pink. 

Dark  Colored  Boiled  Oil. 

Put  into  a  gallon  of  linseed  oil  one  pound  of  litharge 
and  allow  it  to  simmer  or  slowly  boil  until  a  skin  ap- 
pears on  the  surface,  then  remove  from  the  fire,  skim 
the  skin  off  and  let  cool. 

Pale  Boiled  Oil. 

Put  two  ounces  of  sulphate  of  zinc  into  one  quart  of 
linseed  oil  and  one  pint  of  water;  heat  until  the  water 
is  all  evaporated  then  decant  for  use. 

Very  Pale  Drying  Oil. 

Mix  two  ounces  of  dry  sulphate  of  lead  with  one 
pint  of  pale  linseed  oil  and  agitate  the  bottle  for  several 
days,  after  which  place  it  in  the  sun  to  settle. 

Drying  Oil  Without  Boiling. 

With  the  oldest  linseed  oil  obtainable  mix  two  per 
cent  of  manganese  borate  and  heat  on  a  water-bath  to 
100°. 

Pencils  for  Marking  on  Glass. 

Melt  together  four  parts  of  stearic  acid,  three  parts 
mutton  suet,  and  two  parts  of  beeswax ;  then  add  six 
parts  red  lead  and  one  part  purified  carbonate  o'f 
potassa;  set  aside  in  a  warm  place  and  stir  frequently, 
for  an  hour  or  more,  then  pour  into  glass  tubes  to  form 
the  pencils. 


426 


RECIPES. 


Painting  on  Silk. 

Stretch  the  silk  on  a  light  frame  and  wash  it  well 
with  alum  water,  let  dry  thoroughly,  and  apply  a  wash 
of  isinglass  dissolved  in  water — say,  as  much  isin- 
glass as  will  lay  on  a  half  dollar,  in  a  quart  of  water. — 
Now  draw  the  design  with  crayon  or  charcoal,  or 
pounce  it  on  the  silk,  and  paint  with  oil  or  water 
colors.  The  isinglass  size  will  prevent  the  spreading 
of  the  paint. 

The  best  isinglass  is  made  from  the  air  bladders  of 
the  sturgeon,  and  is  imported  from  Russia,  where  that 
fish  largely  abounds. 

To  Remove  Ink  Stains  from  Mahogany,  etc. 

Add  two  ounces  of  oxalic  acid  and  one  ounce  of  but- 
ter of  antimony  to  a  pint  of  water. 

To  Soften  Old  Putty. 

Muriatic  acid  spread,  with  a  rag  tied  on  a  stick,  over 
the  putty  will  soften  it  quite  readily,  when  it  may  be 
scraped  off  with  a  knife  or  chisel.  When  the  putty 
has  been  removed  wash  off  clean  with  water. 

Imitation  of  Ground  Glass. 

Take  90  grains  sandarac  and  20  grains  mastic  gum, 
and  dissolve  them  in  2  ounces  of  methylated  ether,  and 
add  a  small  quantity  of  benzine — from  an  ounce  to  two 
ounces  ;  lay  on  with  a  small  brush. 

To  Remove  Scratches  in  \  arnish. 

Scratches  will  entirely  disappear  if  a  cloth  well  sat- 
urated with  raw  linseed  oil  be  laid  over  them 


RECIPES. 


42T 


Crystal  Varnish  for  Drawings,  Maps,  etc. 

Take  one  ounce  of  Canada  balsam,  spirits  of  turpen- 
tine two  ounces,  mix  together.  Before  applying"  this 
varnish,  the  paper  should  be  placed  on  a  stretcher, 
and  be  sized  with  a  thin  solution  of  isinglass  in  water, 
and  dried.    Apply  with  a  soft  camel's-hair  brush. 

Whitewash — to  Clean  from  a  Ceiling. 

Make  a  thick  paste  of  wheat  flour  in  which  put  a 
goodly  share  of  alum.  Apply  to  the  ceiling  with  a 
whitewash  brush,  being  sure  to  cover  the  ceiling 
thoroughly;  then  shut  the  doors,  and  let  it  stand  over 
night.  In  the  morning  the  greater  part  of  the  white- 
wash will  be  found  to  have  fallen  to  the  floor,  and  that 
which  remains  upon  the  wall  will  be  easily  scraped  off. 

Pencils — to  Clean  from  Dried  Paint 

Put  a  little  turpentine  in  a  saucer  and  set  fire  to  it ; 
let  it  burn  until  it  is  warm,  then  extinguish,  and  rub 
the  hairs  of  the  pencil  in  it. 


TRADE 


VAlrNTshES 

11  THE  STANDARD  FOR  QUALITY." 


MARI- 


Established  1832. 


Incorporated  1882. 


YALENTINE  &  COMPANY, 

Manufacturers  of  High-Grade 

Coach  iii  Car  IiraMi 

^^r^>  COLOES, 
NEW  YORK,   245  Broadway. 


CHICAGO, 
68  Lake  Street. 


BOSTON, 
153  Milk  Street. 


PARIS, 
21  Rue  de  Lappe. 


Partial  List  of  Medals  and.  Awards  given  to 
Valentine's  Varnislies. 


International  Exhibition,  Philadel- 
phia  

Exposition  Umverselle,  Paris, 
France  

Amsterdam  International  Exhibi- 
tion, Amsterdam,  Holland  

Exposition  Internationale  des 
Sciences,  Appliquees  a  1'Indus- 
trie  

ft  elb'Hirne  International  Exposition, 
Melbourne,  A  us  

Adelaide  Exposition,  Melbourne, 
bo.  Aus  

American  Institute  of  the  City  of 
.New  York  1859- 


S76 

87S 
883 

S70 
880 
88 1 
870 


Maryland  Institute  for  the  Protec- 
tion of  Mechanic  Arts   1873 

Massachusetts  Charitable  Mechanic 

Association,  Boston   i?6o 

Mechanics'  and  .Agricultural  Fair 
Association  of  the  State  of 
Louisiana   1873 

Agricultural  Society  of  New  So. 

Wales   1877 

Mechanics'  Institute,  San  Francis- 
co, California   1877 

World's  Industrial  and  Cotton 
Centennial  Exposition,  New 
Orleans   188  s 


F.  W.  DEVOE  &  CO., 

Cor.  Fulton  and  William  Sts.,  New  York, 

MANUFACTURERS  OF 

DRY  COLORS. 

Colors  in  Oil,  in  Japan,  and  in  Distemper. 


VARNISHES  AND  JAPANS. 


Pure  Mixed  Paint 

FOR  HOUSE  PAINTING, 

We  wish  to  call  your  attention  to  the  fact  that  we  guarantee 
our  ready-mixed  paints  to  be  made  only  of  pure  linseed  oil  and 
the  most  permanent  pigments.  They  are  not  "Chemical," 
"  Rubber,"  "  Patent,"  or  "  Fireproof."  We  use  no  secret  or 
patent  method  in  manufacturing  them,  by  which  benzine  and 
water  are  made  to  serve  the  purpose  of  pure  linseed  oil. 

SAMPLES  OF  FIFTY  WESIKABLK  SI5AWES  F«»l£ 


M A NUFACTURERS  OF 

FINE  BRUSHES 

OF  EVERY  DESCRIPTION, 

AND  ALL 

Painters'  Supplies,  Artists'  Materials,  Etc. 


COEIFI^T,    DEVOE   6z   CO.,  Chicago. 


Li 


GETTY  RESEARCH  INSTjTUTE 


